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`AFM and SEM Imaging of Bone
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`A major part of our research into the molecular origins of fracture mechanisms in bone is imaging bone with the Atomic Force
`Microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The everincreasing, extremely high viewing resolution that can be
`achieved with the AFM and the SEM open up an increasingly deep view of how living (and other) structures work.
`
`The following images, which include some of the highestresolution images ever taken of bone, have been taken by our group members,
`often in interdisciplinary collaboration with other labs at UCSB, such as the Dan Morse, Herb Waite and Galen Stucky labs. All images
`that appear on this page have been published in our papers or are in press.
`Bone ultrastructure and bone glue
`
`Before bone ultrastructure could be viewed nondestructively with the AFM, the ultrastructure of bone and bone building blocks collagen
`fibrils, mineral plates and bone's nonfibrillar proteinbased organic matrix could not be seen as accurately as with the AFM. This is
`because other forms of nonoptical microscopy require preparing and imaging delicate biological samples in destructive artificial
`conditions, such as metal plating, extreme cold or high vacuum. Therefore, characteristics of bone building blocks, such as the size and
`shapes of mineral particles of bone, were also estimated through theoretical computations. The AFM can reveal biological structures and
`processes as they are depending, of course, on what is studied (imaging very fast biological processes on the order of micro and
`nanoseconds is not presently in the AFM's reach, and may never be) and depending on the corresponding capabilities of the AFM used.
`We do believe that current AFMs operate far beneath their fundamental limits, so fast enough biological processes and small enough
`biological features are too small and fast for current AFMs to capture. The development of everfaster, eversharper AFMs has been our
`group's expertise for many years, and we have already built AFMs that can image beyond 60 frames per second at 256 x 256 resolution
` far ahead of commerically available AFMs.
`AFM
`
`Our work in imaging bone ultrastructure with the AFM was first published in Hassenkam et al. Bone 35 (2004) 410. Please click here to
`see the beautiful cover of the journal Bone which accompanied our article, and which shows highresolution AFM imaging of bone.
`
`Figure 1 1 x 1 µm AFM topography images of a fracture surface of a trabecula. The area was rinsed with
`water that washed away some of the mineral plates that usually coat the collagen fibrils in bone. The collagen
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`fibrils are therefore visible with their characteristic 67nm spaced banding pattern. The arrows point out
`aggregates bridging the fibrils in various places, which are probably composed of noncollagenous bone matrix
`proteins that have, among other complex functions, a mechanical, adhesive role.
`
`Figure 2 AFM topography images from different regions of the fractured surface of a trabecula that has been
`partly demineralized by rinsing in water. Here the 67nm banding pattern in the collagen is evident in all the
`fibrils. The small protrusions covering the collagen fibrils are probably noncollagenous proteins attached to
`the fibrils though there may be some remaining mineral plates as well. In some cases, bridging aggregates
`between individual collagen fibrils is clearly visible, see arrows in the full frame images and in the magnified
`and computerenhanced small images (a is from A, b is from B, and c is from C).
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`Figure 3 AFM image of a fractured bone surface showing bone glue. The fundamental building blocks of
`bone are collagen1 fibrils, which are mineralized by being coated with knobbly mineral plates of
`hydroxyapatite, and a matrix of all many proteins apart from collagen1 external to the mineralized collagen
`fibrils, that has many regulatory and mechanical functions. This image shows that the matrix also acts as an
`interface between mineralized collagen fibrils; the arrows superimposed over this image point to the protein
`matrix bridging collagen fibrils. Elements of the noncollagen1 protein matrix have an adhesive role,
`contributing to the structural integrity of bone. We are studying precisely what those elements are, how they
`work, and how they fail in aging and disease. (This image was published in our recent paper, Fantner et al.
`Nature Materials, Vol. 4, p.612616 (August 2005)).
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`SEM
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`Figure 4 SEM image of a microcrack. Only three types of bridges are left spanning this gap a mostly bare
`collagen fibril (in the center its banding pattern can be seen), a mineralized fibril bundle that consists of the
`same material as the bulk of the bone (beginning from the top lefthand corner) and stringy, unstructured
`gluelike material (at the left base of the bare collagen fibril, and prominently near the top righthand corner of
`this image). It is this glue that is the current focus of our research on bone.
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`Figure 5 Different morphologies of bone building blocks. Bone is comprised of three basic building blocks
`collagen fibrils, mineral plates, and a matrix of unmineralized, nonfibrillar organic material, mostly made of
`proteoglycans and glycoproteins. (The matrix is also known as the noncollagenous bone matrix). Bone is a
`highly heterogenous material, partially because it has been adapted to resist different, complex and varying
`stresses in every species in which it occurs. These scanning electron micrographs show that this heterogenity
`has its origins in some of the smallest dimensions, as the micrographs were all taken from the same bone
`sample. They particularly show that the amount of the unmineralized, nonfibrillar organic matrix in trabecular
`bone varies: A) Fibrils coated with a large amount of nonfibrillar organic material. Particles can still be seen
`through the smooth cover layer. B) Unmineralized collagen fibrils showing the characteristic 67nm banding
`pattern. Some particles are between the fibrils but the fibrils are not fully mineralized. C) Mineralized fibrils
`without nonfibrillar matrix. D) Crack formation in an area with large amounts of nonfibrillar organic matrix.
`The nonfibrillar organic matrix spans the crack and appears to resist the separation of the mineralized fibrils.
`
`Normal vs aged and diseased human bone
`
`The fundamental question of what makes bone weaker in aging and disease is still not fully understood. We study and compare the
`effects of aging and disease against the mechanics of normal, healthy bone. Part of our research here is to try to understand how bone
`quality degrades over time, and particularly whether and how bone glue degrades in aging and disease. Given the recent discovery of
`bone glue, a study of its properties in aging and disease is a new area of research.
`
`Human bone mass peaks between ages 2030. A gradual decline in bone mass then ensues for both sexes, until menopause in women,
`when women begin to drastically lose bone mass. This is one reason osteoporosis is far more common in women and men, but the
`disease is present in men, too.
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`Figure 6 SEM of young (22year old), male human bone
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`Figure 7 SEM of elderly bone (osteoporotic woman in her '80s)
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