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`AUTOMOTIVE
`ELECTRONICS
`HANDBOOK
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`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor in Chief
`
`WAHEHAM.’ FnEE;o,LtaRA7:¥i“' »
`59 MARION new ’
`WAREHAM, MA! 0252.1
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`McGraw—HilI, Inc.
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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`
`
`Automotive electronics handbook / Ronald Jurgen, editor in chief.
`p.
`cm.
`Includes index.
`ISBN 0-07-033189—8
`1. Automobiles»-Electronic equipment.
`TL272.5.A982
`1994
`629.25 '49—dc
`
`I. Jurgen, Ronald K.
`
`94-39724
`CIP
`
`Copyright © 1995 by McGraw—Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the
`United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States
`Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or dis-
`tributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
`system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`234567890 AGM/AGM 9098765
`
`ISBN 0-07-033189-8
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S. Chapman, the editing
`supervisor was Virginia Carroll, and the production supervisor was
`Suzanne W B. Rapcavage. It was set in Times Roman by North Market
`Street Graphics.
`
`Printed and bound by Arcata Graphics/Martinsburg.
`
`McGraw—Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as pre-
`miums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For
`more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw-
`Hill, Inc., 11 West 19th Street, New York, NY 10011. Or contact your local
`bookstore.
`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-
`Hill, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither
`McGraw—Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or complete-
`ness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw—
`Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions,
`or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is
`published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors
`are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engi-
`neering or other professional services.
`If such services are
`required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be
`
`sought.
`
`This book is printed on acid-free paper.
`
`4
`
`
`
`-This book is dedicated to Robert H. Lewis and to
`the memories of Douglas R. Jurgen and Marion
`Schappel.
`
`5
`
`
`
`6
`
`
`
`
`Part 1
`
`Introduction
`
`Chapter 1. Introduction RonaIdK.Jurgen
`
`1.1 The Dawn of a New Era / 1.3
`1.2 The Microcomputer Takes Center Stage / 1.4
`1.3 Looking to the Future / 1.5
`References / 1.6
`
`Part 2 Sensors and Actuators
`
`Chapter 2. Pressure Sensors Randy Frank
`
`2.1 Automotive Pressure Measurements / 2.3
`2.2 Automotive Applications for Pressure Sensors / 2.5
`2.3 Technologies for Sensing Pressure / 2.15
`2.4 Future Pressure-Sensing Developments / 2.23
`Glossary / 2.24
`Bibliography / 2.24
`
`1.3
`
`2.3
`
`Chapter 3. Linear and Angie Position Sensors Paul Niclrson
`
`3.1
`
`3.1 Introduction / 3.1
`3.2 Classification of Sensors / 3.1
`3.3 Position SensorTechnologies / 3.2
`3.4 Interfacing Sensors to Control Systems
`Glossary / 3.17
`References / 3.17
`
`/ 3.16
`
`Chapter 4. Flow Sensors Robert E. Bicking
`
`4.1
`
`4.1 Introduction / 4.1
`4.2 Automotive Applications of Flow Sensors
`4.3 Basic Classification of Flow Sensors / 4.3
`4.4 Applicable Flow MeasurementTechno1ogies / 4.4
`Glossary / 4.8
`Bibliography / 4.9
`
`/ 4.1
`
`7
`
`
`
`viii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 5. Temperature, Heat, and Humidity Sensors Randy Frank
`
`5.1 Temperature, Heat, and Humidity / 5.1
`5.2 AutomotiveTemperature Measurements / 5.5
`5.3 Humidity Sensing and Vehicle Performance / 5.12
`5.4 Sensors forTemperature / 5.14
`5.5 Humidity Sensors / 5.21
`5.6 Conclusions / 5.22
`Glossary / 5.23
`Bibliography / 5.23
`
`Chapter 6. Exhaust Gas Sensors Hans-Martin Wiedenmann,
`Gerhard Hétzel, Harald Neumann, Johann Riegel, and Helmut Weyl
`
`6.1 Basic Concepts / 6.1
`6.2 Principles of Exhaust Gas Sensors for Lambda Control
`6.3 Technology of Ceramic Exhaust Gas Sensors / 6.11
`6.4 Factors Affecting the Control Characteristics of Lambda = 1 Sensors / 6.14
`6.5 Applications / 6.18
`6.6 Sensor Principles for Other Exhaust Gas Components / 6.20
`Bibliography / 622
`
`/ 6.5
`
`Chapter 7. Speed and Acceleration Sensors William C. Dunn
`
`7.1 Introduction / 7.1
`7.2 Speed-Sensing Devices / 7.2
`7.3 Automotive Applications for Speed Sensing / 7.6
`7.4 Acceleration Sensing Devices / 7.8
`7.5 Automotive Applications for Accelerometers / 7.18
`7.6 New Sensing Devices / 7.22
`7.7 Future Applications I 7.24
`7.8 Summary / 7.26
`Glossary / 7.27
`References / 7.28
`
`Chapter 8. Engine Knock Sensors William G. Wolber
`
`8.1 Introduction / 8.1
`8.2 The Knock Phenomenon / 8.2
`8.3 Technologies for Sensing Knock / 8.4
`8.4 Summary / 8.9
`Glossary / 8.9
`References / 8.9
`
`Chapter 9. Engine Torque Sensors William G. Wolber
`
`9.1 Introduction / 9.1
`9.2 Automotive Applications ofTorque Measurement
`9.3 DirectTorque Sensors / 9.6
`9.4 Inferred Torque Measurement
`9.5 Summary / 9.13
`Glossary / 9.13
`References / 9.14
`
`/ 9.8
`
`/ 9.3
`
`5.1
`
`6.1
`
`7.1
`
`8.1
`
`9.1
`
`8
`
`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`ix
`
`10.1
`
`Chapter 10. Actuators Klaus ML'iIIer
`
`10.1 Preface / 10.1
`10.2 Types of ElectromechanicalActuators / 10.2
`10.3 AutomotiveActuators / 10.19
`10.4 Technology for Future Application / 10.27
`Acknowledgments / 10.30
`Glossary / 10.30
`Bibliography / 10.31
`
`Pa rt 3 Control Systems
`
`Chapter 11. Automotive Microcontrollers Davids. Boehmer
`
`11.3
`
`11.1 Microcontroller Architecture and Performance Characteristics / 11.3 «
`11.2 Memory / 11.24
`11.3 Low-Speed Input/Output Ports / 11.31
`11.4 High-Speed I/O Ports / 11.36
`11.5 Serial Communications / 11.41
`11.6 Anal0g—t0-Digital Converter
`/ 11.45
`11.7 Failsafe Methodologies / 11.49
`11.8 FutureTrends / 11.51
`Glossary / 11.54
`Bibliography / 11.55
`
`Chapter 12. Engine Control Gary C. Hirschlieb, Gottfried Schiller,
`and Shari Stottler
`
`12.1 Objectives of Electronic Engine Control Systems / 12.1
`12.2 Spark Ignition Engines / 12.5
`12.3 Compression Ignition Engines / 12.32
`
`Chapter 13. Transmission Control Kurt Neuffer, Wolfgang Bullmer,
`and Werner Brehm
`
`13.1 Introduction / 13.1
`13.2 System Components / 13.2
`13.3 System Functions / 13.7
`13.4 Communications with Other Electronic Control Units / 13.17
`13.5 Optimization of the Drivetrain / 13.18
`13.6 Future Developments / 13.19
`Glossary / 13.20
`References / 13.20
`
`Chapter 14. Cruise Control Richard Valentine
`
`14.1 Cruise Control System / 14.1
`14.2 Microcontroller Requirements for Cruise Control
`14.3 Cruise Control Software / 14.4
`14.4 Cruise ControlDesign / 14.6
`14.5 Future Cruise Concepts / 14.7
`Glossary / 14.8
`Bibliography / 14.8
`
`/ 14.3
`
`12.1
`
`13.1
`
`14.1
`
`9
`
`
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 15. Braking Control
`
`Jerry L. Cage
`
`15.1 Introduction / 15.1
`15.2 Vehicle Braking Fundamentals / 15.1
`15.3 Antilock Systems
`/ 15.8
`15.4 Future Vehicle Braking Systems
`Glossary / 15.15
`References / 15.16
`
`/ 15.14
`
`Chapter 16. Traction Control Armin czinczel
`
`16.1 Introduction / 16.1
`16.2 Forces Affecting Wheel Traction: Fundamental Concepts / 16.3
`16.3 Controlled Variables / 16.5
`16.4 Control Modes / 16.6
`16.5 Traction Control Components / 16.11
`16.6 Applications on Heavy Commercial Vehicles / 16.13
`16.7 Future Trends / 16.14
`Glossary / 16.14
`Bibliography / 16.15
`
`15.1
`
`16.1
`
`Chapter 17. Suspension Control Akatsu Yohsuke
`
`17.1
`
`17.1 Shock Absorber Control System / 17.1
`17.2 Hydropneumatic Suspension Control System / 17.4
`17.3 Electronic Leveling Control System / 17.5
`17.4 Active Suspension / 17.8
`17.5 Conclusion / 17.17
`Glossary / 17.18
`Nomenclature / 17.18
`Bibliography / 17.18
`
`Chapter 18. Steering Control Makoto sato
`
`18.1 Variable-Assist Steering / 18.1
`18.2 Four—Wheel Steering Systems (4WS)
`Glossary / 18.33
`References / 18.33
`
`/ 18.15
`
`Chapter 19. Lighting, Wipers, Air Conditioning/Heating
`Richard Valentine
`
`19.1 Lighting Controls / 19.1
`/ 19.9
`19.2 Windshieldwiper Control
`19.3 Air Conditioner/Heater Control
`/ 19.15
`19.4 Miscellaneous Load Control Reference / 19.20
`19.5 Future Load Control Concepts / 19.25
`Glossary / 19.26
`Bibliography / 19.27
`
`18.1
`
`19.1
`
`10
`
`10
`
`
`
`Part 4 Displays and Information Systems
`
`Chapter 20. Instrument Panel Displays Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`20.1 The Evolution to Electronic Displays / 20.3
`20.2 Vacuum Fluorescent Displays / 20.3
`20.3 Liquid Crystal Displays / 20.4
`20.4 Cathode—Ray Tube Displays / 20.6
`20.5 Head-up Displays / 20.6
`20.6 Electronic Analog Displays / 20.8
`20.7 Reconfigurable Displays / 20.9
`References / 20.9
`
`Chapter 21. Trip Computers Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`21.1 Trip Computer Basics / 21.1
`21.2 SpecificTrip Computer Designs / 21.2
`21.3 Conclusion / 21.4 ~
`References / 21.6 »
`
`Chapter 22. On- and Off-Board Diagnostics Wolfgang Bremer,
`Frieder Heintz, and Robert Hugel
`
`22.1 Why Diagnostics? / 22.1
`22.2 On-Board Diagnostics / 22.6
`22.3 Off-Board Diagnostics / 22.7
`22.4 Legislation and Standardization / 22.8
`22.5 Future Diagnostic Concepts / 22.15
`Glossary / 22.18
`References / 22.19
`
`Part 5 Safety, Convenience, Entertainment,
`and Other Systems
`
`Chapter 23. Passenger Safety and Convenience Bernhard K. Mattes
`
`/ 23.3
`23.1 Passenger Safety Systems
`23.2 Passenger Convenience Systems
`Glossary / 23.13
`Bibliography / 23.13
`
`/ 23.11
`
`Chapter 24. Antitheft Systems ShinichiKato
`
`24.1 Vehicle Theft Circumstances / 24.1
`24.2 Overview of Antitheft Regulations / 24.2
`24.3 ABasic Antitheft System / 24.3
`
`CONTENTS
`
`.xi
`
`20.3
`
`21.1
`
`22.1
`
`23.3
`
`24.1
`
`11
`
`11
`
`
`
`xii
`
`CONTENTS
`
`Chapter 25. Entertainment Products
`
`Tom Chrapkiewicz
`
`25.1
`
`25.1 Fundamentals of Audio Systems / 25.1
`25.2 ABrief History of Automotive Entertainment
`25.3 Contemporary Audio Systems
`/ 25.5
`-
`25.4 FutureTrends / 25.12
`Glossary I 25.17
`References / 25.18
`
`/ 25.4
`
`Chapter 26. Multiplex Wiring Systems Fred Miesterfeld
`
`26.1
`
`26.1 Vehicle Multiplexing / 26.1
`26.2 EncodingTechniques / 26.9
`26.3 Protocols / 26.23
`26.4 Summary and Conclusions / 26.53
`Glossary / 26.56
`References / 26.64
`
`Part 6 Electromagnetic Interference and Compatibility
`
`Chapter 27. Electromagnetic Standards and Interference
`James P. Muccioli
`
`27.3
`
`27.1 SAE Automotive EMC Standards / 27.3
`27.2 IEEE Standards Related to EMC / 27.11
`27.3 The Electromagnetic Environment of an Automobile Electronic System / 27.13
`Bibliography / 27.18
`'
`
`Chapter 28. Electromagnetic Compatibility James R Muccioli
`
`28.1
`
`28.1 Noise Propagation Modes / 28.1
`28.2 Cabling / 28.2
`28.3 Components / 28.4
`/ 28.9
`28.4 Printed Circuit Board EMC Checklist
`28.5 Integrated Circuit Dec0upling—A Key Automotive EMI Concern / 28.10
`28.6 IC Process Size Affects EMC / 28.14
`Bibliography / 28.19
`
`Part 7 Emerging Technologies
`
`Chapter 29. Navigation Aids and intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems Robert L.
`French
`
`29.3
`
`29.1 Background / 29.3
`29.2 Automobile Navigation Technologies / 29.4
`29.3 Examples of Navigation Systems / 29.10
`29.4 Other IVHS Systems and Services
`/ 29.15
`References / 29.18
`
`12
`
`12
`
`
`
`Chapter 30. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles George G. Karady, Tracy Blake,
`Raymond S. Hobbs, and Donald B. Karner
`
`30.1
`
`CONTENTS
`
`xiii
`
`30.1 Introduction / 30.1
`30.2 System Description / 30.5
`30.3 Charger and Protection System / 30.6
`30.4 Motor Drive System / 30.8
`30.5 Battery / 30.17
`30.6 Vehicle Control and Auxiliary Systems / 30.19
`30.7 Infrastructure / 30.21
`30.8 Hybrid Vehicles / 30.23
`Glossary / 30.24
`References / 30.25
`
`Chapter 31. Noise Cancellation Systems
`
`Jeffrey N. Denenberg
`
`A 31.1
`
`31.1 Noise Sources / 31.1
`31.2 Applications / 31.5
`Glossary / 31.10
`Bibliography / 31.10
`
`Chapter 32. Future Vehicle Electronics Randy Frank and Salim Momin
`
`32.1
`
`32.1 Retrospective / 32.1
`32.2 IC Technology / 32.1
`32.3 Other SemiconductorTechnologies / 32.5
`32.4 Enabling the Future / . 32.11
`32.5 Impact on Future Automotive Electronics / 32.15
`32.6 Conclusions / 32.20
`Glossary / 32.21
`Bibliography / 32.23
`
`lndex /
`
`1.1
`
`13
`
`13
`
`
`
`14
`
`14
`
`
`
`
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Robert E. Bicking Honeywell, Micro Switch Division (CHAR. 4)
`
`Tracy Blake Arizona State University (CHAR 30)
`David S. Boehmer
`Intel Corporation (CHAP. 11)
`
`Werner Brehm Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 13)
`
`Wolfgang Bremer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 22)
`
`Wolfgang Bullmer Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR13)
`
`Jerry L. Cage Allied Signal, Inc. (CHAR 15)
`Tom Chrapkiewicz Philips Semiconductor (CHAR 25)
`
`Armin Czinczel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 16)
`
`Jeffrey N. Denenberg Noise Cancellation Technologies, Inc. (CHAR 31)
`
`William C. Dunn Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAR 7)
`
`Randy Frank Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAPS. 2, 5, 32)
`
`Robert L. French R. L. French &Ass0ciates (CHAR 29)
`
`Frieder Heintz Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 22)
`
`Gary C. Hirschlieb Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 12)
`
`Raymond S. Hobbs Arizona Public Service Company (CHAP. 30)
`
`Gerhard Hiitzel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`Robert Hugel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR. 22)
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen Editor (CHAPS. 1, 20,21)
`
`George G. Karady Arizona State Univeristy (CHAR 30)
`
`Donald B. Karner Electric Transportation Application (CHAR 30)
`
`Shinichi Kato Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. (CHAR 24)
`
`Bernhard K. Mattes Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR23)
`
`Fred Miesterfeld Chrysler Corporation (CHAR. 26)
`
`Salim Momin Motorola Semiconductor Products (CHAR 32)
`
`James P. Muccioli
`
`JASTECH (CHAPS. 27,28)
`
`Klaus Miiller Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 10)
`
`Kurt Neuffer Robert Bosch GmbH (cHAR13)
`
`Harald Neumann Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`Paul Nickson Analog Devices, Inc. (CHAR 3)
`
`Johann Riegel Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAR 6)
`
`15
`
`15
`
`
`
`xvi
`
`CONTRIBUTORS
`
`Makoto Sato Honda R&D Co., Ltd. (CHAP. 18)
`
`Gottfried Schiller Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 12)
`
`Shari Stottler Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 12)
`
`Richard Valentine Motorola Inc. (CHAPS. 14,19)
`
`Helmut Weyl Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 6)
`
`Hans-Martin Wiedenmann Robert Bosch GmbH (CHAP. 6)
`
`William G. Wolber Cummins Electronics Co., Inc. (CHAPS. 8, 9)
`
`Akatsu Yohsuke Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. (CHAP. 17)
`
`16
`
`16
`
`
`
`
`
`PREFACE
`
`Automotive electronics as we know it today encompasses a wide variety of devices and sys-
`tems. Key to them all, and those yet to come, is the ability to sense and measure accurately
`automotive parameters. Equally important at the output is the ability to initiate control
`actions accurately in response to commands. In other words, sensors and actuators are the
`heart of any automotive electronics application. That is why they have been placed first in this
`handbook where they are described in technical depth. In other chapters, application-specific
`discussions of sensors and actuators can be found.
`
`The importance of sensors and actuators cannot be overemphasized.'Ihe future growth of
`automotive electronics is arguably more dependent on sufficiently accurate and low-cost sen-
`sors and actuators than on computers, controls, displays, and other technologies. Yet it is those
`nonsensor, nonactuator technologies that are to many engineers the more “glamorous” and
`exciting areas of automotive electronics.
`In the section on control systems, a key in—depth chapter deals with automotive microcom-
`trollers. Without them, all of the controls described in the chapters that follow in that sec-
`tion——engine, transmission, cruise, braking, traction, suspension, steering, lighting, windshield
`wipers, air conditioner/heater—would not be possible. Those controls, of course, are key to car
`operation and they have made cars over the years more drivable, safe, and reliable.
`Displays, trip computers, and on— and off—board diagnostics are described in another sec-
`tion, as are systems for passenger safety and convenience, antitheft, entertainment, and multi-
`plex wiring. Displays and trip computers enable the driver to readily obtain valuable
`information about the car’s operation and anticipated trip time. On- and off-board diagnostics
`have of necessity become highly sophisticated to keep up with highly sophisticated electronic
`controls. Passenger safety and convenience items and antitheft devices add much to the feel-
`ing of security and pleasure in owning an automobile. Entertainment products are what got
`automotive electronics started and they continue to be in high demand by car buyers. And
`multiplex wiring, off to a modest start in production cars, holds great promise for the future in
`reducing the cumbersome wiring harnesses presently used.
`The section on electromagnetic interference and compatibility emphasizes that interfer-
`ence from a variety of sources, if not carefully taken into account early on, can raise havoc
`with what otherwise would be elegant automotive electronic designs. And automotive systems
`themselves, if not properly designed, can cause interference both inside and outside the auto-
`mobile.
`
`In the final section on emerging technologies, some key newer areas are presented:
`
`I Navigation aids and intelligent vehicle-highway systems are of high interest worldwide
`since they hold promise to alleviate many of vehicle—caused problems and frustrations in
`our society.
`
`I While it may be argued that electric vehicles are not an emerging technology, since they
`have been around for many years, it certainly is true that they have yet to come into their
`own in any really meaningful way.
`
`I Electronic noise cancellation is getting increasing attention from automobile designers
`seeking an edge over their competitors.
`
`17
`
`17
`
`
`
`xviii
`
`PREFACE
`
`The final chapter on future vehicle electronics is an umbrella discussion that runs the
`gamut of trends in future automotive electronics hardware and software. It identifies poten-
`tial technology developments and trends for future systems.
`Nearly every chapter contains its own glossary of terms. This approach, rather than one
`overall unified glossary, has the advantage of allowing terms to be defined in a more applica-
`tion-specific manner———in the context of the subject of each chapter. It should also be noted
`that there has been no attempt in this handbook to cover, except peripherally, purely mechan-
`ical and electrical devices and systems. To do so would have restricted the number of pages
`available for automotive electronics discussions.
`
`Finally, the editor would like to thank all contributors to the handbook and particularly
`two individuals: Otto Holzinger of Robert Bosch GmbH in Stuttgart, Germany and Randy
`Frank of Motorola Semiconductor Products in Phoenix, Arizona. Holzinger organized the
`many contributions to this handbook from his company. Frank, in addition to contributing
`two chapters himself and cocontributing a third, organized the other contributions from
`Motorola.Without their help, this handbook would not have been possible.
`
`Ronald K. Jurgen
`
`18
`
`18
`
`
`
`CHAPTER 11
`
`AUTOMOTIVE
`MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`David S. Boehmer
`Senior/lpplications Engineer
`Intel Corporation
`
`A microcontroller can be found at the heart of almost any automotive electronic control mod-
`ule or ECU in production today. Automotive systems such as antilock braking control (ABS),
`engine control, navigation, and vehicle dynamics all incorporate at least one microcontroller
`within their ECU to perform necessary control functions. Understanding the various features
`and offerings of microcontrollers that are available on the market today is important when
`making a selection for an application. This chapter is intended to provide a look at various
`microcontroller features and provide some insight into their characteristics from an automo-
`tive application point of view.
`
`1 1.1 MICROCONTROLLER ARCHITECTURE AND PERFORMANCE
`CHARACTERISTICS
`
`A microcontroller can essentially be thought of as a single-chip computer system and is often
`referred to as a single-chip microcomputer. It detects and processes input signals, and
`responds by asserting output signals to the rest of the ECU. Fabricated upon this highly inte-
`grated, single piece of silicon are all of the features necessary to perform embedded control
`functions. Microcontrollers are fabricated by many manufacturers and are offered in just
`about any imaginable mix of memory, I/O, and peripheral sets. The user customizes the oper-
`ation of the microcontroller by programming it with his or her own unique program. The pro-
`gram configures the microcontroller to detect external events, manipulate the collected data,
`and respond with appropriate output. The user’s program is commonly referred to as code
`and typically resides on-chip in either ROM or EPROM. In some cases where an excessive
`amount of code space is required, memory may exist off-chip on a separate piece of silicon.
`After power-up, a microcontroller executes the user’s code and performs the desired embed-
`ded control function.
`
`Microcontrollers differ from microprocessors in several ways. Microcontrollers can be
`thought of as a complete microcomputer on a chip that integrates a CPU with memory and
`various peripherals such as analog-to-digital converters (A/D), serial communication units
`(SIO, SSIO), high-speed input and output units (HSIO, EPA, PWM), timer/counter units, and
`
`19
`
`19
`
`
`
`1 1.4
`
`CONTROL SYSTEMS
`
`standard low—speed input/output ports (LSIO). Microcontrollers are designed to be embed-
`ded within event-driven control applications and generally have all necessary peripherals
`integrated onto the same piece of silicon. Microcontrollers are utilized in applications ranging
`from automotive ABS to household appliances in which the microcontroller’s function is pre-
`defined and limited user interface is required.
`Microprocessors, on the other hand, typically require external peripheral devices to per-
`form their intended function and are not suited to be utilized in single-chip designs. Micro-
`processors basically consist of a CPU with register arrays and interrupt handlers. Peripherals
`such as A/D and HSIO are rarely integrated onto microprocessor silicon. Microprocessors are
`designed to process large quantities of data and have the capability to handle large amounts
`of external memory. Although microprocessors are typically utilized in applications which are
`much more human—interface and I/O intensive such as personal computers and office work-
`stations, they are beginning to find their way into embedded applications.
`Choosing a microcontroller for an application is a process that takes careful investigation
`and thought. Items such as memory size, frequency, bus size, 1/0 requirements, and tempera-
`ture range are all basic requirements that must be considered when choosing a microcon-
`troller. The microcontroller family must possess the performance capability necessary to
`successfully accomplish the intended task.The family should also provide a memory, I/O, and
`frequency growth path that allows easy upgradability to meet market demands. Additionally,
`the microcontroller must meet the application’s thermal requirements in order to guarantee
`functionality over the intended operating temperature range. Items such as these must all be
`considered when choosing a microcontroller for an automotive application.
`
`‘W P
`
`‘\11.1.1 Block Diagram
`Usually the first item a designer will see when opening a microcontroller data book or data
`sheet is a block diagram. A block diagram provides a high-level pictorial representation of a
`microcontroller and depicts the various peripherals, I/O, and memory functions the micro-
`controller has to offer. The block diagram gives the designer a quick indication if the particu-
`lar microcontroller will meet the basic memory, I/O, and peripheral needs of their application.
`Figure 11.1 shows a block diagram for a state-of-the-art microcontroller. It depicts 32 Kbytes
`
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`20
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`20
`
`
`
`AUTOMOTIVE MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`1 1 .5
`
`of EPROM, 1 Kbyte of register RAM, 6 I/O ports, an A-to-D converter, 2 timers, high—speed
`input/output (I/O) channels, as well as many other peripherals. These features may be “exces-
`sive” to a designer looking for a microcontroller to implement in an automotive trip-com-
`puter application but would be excellently suited for automotive ABS/traction control or
`engine control.
`
`11.1.2
`
`Pin—Out Diagram
`
`A microcontroller’s pin-out diagram is used to specify the functions assigned to pins relative to
`their position on a given package. An example pin~out diagram is shown in Fig. 11.2. Note that
`most pins have multiple functions assigned to them. Pins that can support more than one func-
`tion are referred to as multifunction pins. The default function for multifunction pins is nor-
`mally that of low—speed input and output (discussed later in this chapter). If the user should
`wish to select the secondary or special function associated with the pin,he or she can do so by
`writing to the appropriate special function register. There are some exceptions. A good exam-
`ple is pins used for interfacing to external memory. If the device is instructed to power-up exe-
`cuting from external memory as opposed to on-chip memory, the address data bus and
`associated control pins will revert to their special function as opposed to low-speed I/O.
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`
`21
`
`21
`
`
`
`1 1.6
`
`CONTROL SYSTEMS
`
`11.1.3 Central Processing Unit
`
`The central processing unit or CPU can be thought of as the brain of a microcontroller. The
`CPU is the circuitry within a microcontroller where instructions are executed and decisions
`are made. Mathematical calculations, data processing, and control signal generation all take
`place within the CPU. Major components of the CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
`register file, instruction register, and a microcode engine. The CPU is connected to the bus
`controller and other peripherals via a bidirectional data bus.
`Microcontrollers are, for the most part, digital devices. As digital devices, microcontrollers
`utilize a binary numbering system with a base of 2. Binary data digits or bits are expressed as
`either a logic “1” (boolean value of true) or a logic “O” (boolean value of false). In a 5-V sys-
`tem, a logic “1” may be simply defined as a +5-V state and a logic “O” may be defined as a 0-V
`state. A bit is a single memory or register location that can contain either a logic “1” or a logic
`“0” state. Bits of data can be arranged as a nibble (4 bits of data), a byte (8 bits of data), or as
`a word (16 bits of data). It should also be noted that, in some instances, a word may be defined
`as the data width that a given microcontroller can recognize at a time, be it 8 bits or 16 bits.
`For purposes of this chapter, we will refer to a word as being 16 bits. Data can also be
`expressed as a double word which is an unsigned 32-bit variable with a value between 0 and
`4,294,967,295. Most architectures support this data only for shifts, dividends of a 32—by-16
`divide, or for the product of a 16-by-16 multiply.
`The most common way of referring to a microcontroller is by the width of its CPU. This
`indicates the width of data that the CPU can process at a time. A microcontroller with a CPU
`that can process 8 bits of data at a time is referred to as an 8-bit microcontroller. A microcon-
`troller with a CPU that can process 16 bits of data at a time is referred to as a 16-bit micro-
`controller. With this in mind, it is easy to see why 16-bit microcontrollers offer higher
`performance than their 8-bit counterparts. Figure 11.3 illustrates a typical 16-bit CPU dia-
`
`Memory Controller
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`
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`
`
`
`22
`
`
`
`AUTOMOTIVE MICROCONTROLLERS
`
`11.7
`
`gram. The microcode engine controls the CPU. Instructions to the CPU are taken from the
`instruction queue and temporarily stored in the instruction register. This queue is often
`referred to as a prefetch queue and it decreases execution time by staging instructions to be
`executed. The microcode engine then decodes the instructions and generates the correct
`sequence of events to have the ALU perform the desired function(s).
`
`Arithmetic Logic Unit. The ALU is the portion of the CPU that performs most mathemat-
`ical and logic operations. After an instruction is decoded by the microcode engine, the data -
`specified by the instruction is loaded into the ALU for processing. The ALU then processes
`the data as specified by the instruction.
`
`Register File. The register file consists of memory locations that are used as temporary stor-
`age locations while the user’s code is executing. The register file is implemented as RAM and
`consists of both RAM memory locations and special function registers (SFRS). RAM mem-
`ory locations are used as temporary data storage during execution of the user’s code. After
`power—up, RAM memory locations default to a logic “0” and data in SFR locations contain
`default values as specified by the microcontroller manufacturer.
`
`SFRS allow the user to configure and monitor various periph-
`Special Function Registers.
`erals and functions of the microcontroller. By writing specific data to an SFR, t