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`
`E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y
`As performance of processors and peripherals improves and companies increasingly move to
`distributed architectures while consolidating servers, high-speed and data intensive network
`applications (such as transaction processing, decision support, data warehousing, image-based
`document systems, geophysical mapping, and multimedia) are proliferating. Interconnects between
`servers and the I/O devices they support have become a management bottleneck. Current
`interconnects require that I/O devices be located within very close proximity to servers. This
`limited transmission distance is inadequate for mirrored data sites. A further restriction is the
`number of I/O devices that can be attached to systems.
`
`New interconnect technology is needed to overcome current I/O and physical limitations and to
`meet future demands. Nowhere is this need more critical than in the storage subsystem.
`
`This technology brief addresses recent computing trends and customer issues with current storage
`technology. It provides an overview of Fibre Channel technology and explains why Compaq’s
`strategic direction for high-performance and high-capacity external storage is based on Fibre
`Channel.
`
`Please direct comments regarding this communication to the ECG Technology Communications Group at this Internet
`address: TechCom@compaq.com
`
` .94-07  
`
`425,6 425:907
`47547,943
`
`C O N T E N T S
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`
`ECG009.1097
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 1
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`NOTICE
`The information in this publication is subject to change without notice and is provided “AS IS”
`WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND. THE ENTIRE RISK ARISING OUT OF THE USE
`OF THIS INFORMATION REMAINS WITH RECIPIENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL COMPAQ
`BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, PUNITIVE
`OR OTHER DAMAGES WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION,
`DAMAGES FOR LOSS OF BUSINESS PROFITS, BUSINESS INTERRUPTION OR LOSS OF
`BUSINESS INFORMATION), EVEN IF COMPAQ HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
`POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
`
`The limited warranties for Compaq products are exclusively set forth in the documentation
`accompanying such products. Nothing herein should be construed as constituting a further or
`additional warranty.
`
`This publication does not constitute an endorsement of the product or products that were tested.
`The configuration or configurations tested or described may or may not be the only available
`solution. This test is not a determination of product quality or correctness, nor does it ensure
`compliance with any federal state or local requirements.
`
`Compaq and ProLiant are registered with the United States Patent and Trademark Office.
`
`ServerNet is a trademark of Tandem Computers Incorporated.
`
`Pentium is a registered trademark of Intel Corporation.
`
`Other product names mentioned herein may be trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their
`respective companies.
`
`©1997 Compaq Computer Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A.
`
`Strategic Direction for Compaq Fibre Channel-Attached Storage
`Second Edition (October 14, 1997)
`Document Number ECG009.1097
`
`.................................................................................................................................................................
`
`
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 2
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`the explosion of the Internet
`
`the need to keep more information on-line
`
`S T O R A G E T R E N D S A N D C U S T O M E R I S S U E S
`Today storage needs are expanding more rapidly than ever before. Customers are demanding
`improved storage solutions. Driving their demands are these new trends in enterprise computing:
`•
`•
`•
`•
`consolidation of servers
`• movement of PC Servers into business critical applications
`•
`the growing complexity of applications with more graphics, video, and sound to be stored
`Key storage issues for enterprise customers include their current and future needs for distributed
`storage in conjunction with improved network storage management; increased connectivity and
`capacity, plus dynamic expansion capabilities; high performance, availability, and reliability;
`investment protection; and reduced cost of ownership.
`
`the need to collect, scan, and track decision support information
`
`Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) technology has carried the storage industry forward for
`many years. Inherent I/O and physical limitations, however, now prevent SCSI technology from
`satisfying the expanding needs of enterprise storage.
`
`Although SCSI will remain an important part of data storage solutions for some time, a new
`interconnect technology must propel future growth of enterprise storage. This technology brief
`explains why Compaq believes Fibre Channel is the right interconnect technology for building
`future storage solutions.
`
`T E R M I N O L O G Y A N D C O N V E N T I O N S
`In this document the term fibre (international spelling) refers to a communication medium
`consisting of either copper or fiber optics. The term Fibre Channel is capitalized in accordance
`with the convention set by the governing standards committee.
`
`C O M P A Q’ S S T R A T E G I C D I R E C T I O N F O R E X T E R N A L
`S T O R A G E
`Compaq’s strategic direction for high-performance and high-capacity external storage is based on
`Fibre Channel technology because it provides the means to satisfy all the enterprise storage needs
`identified above. Fibre Channel is a key technology for the high-speed storage interconnect (that
`is, processor-to-storage and storage-to-storage communications) and for the serial drive interface
`(high-performance disk systems). It provides opportunity for the integration of primary and
`secondary storage as well as for shared storage among multiple servers.
`
`Compaq also has a strong interest in Gigabit Ethernet and Tandem ServerNet. Gigabit Ethernet is a
`high-speed extension to Ethernet. It leverages the physical level and the encoding used in Fibre
`Channel. Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel are complementary. Gigabit Ethernet provides the
`high-speed local area network, while Fibre Channel provides the high-speed storage area network.
`A Fibre Channel storage area network allows a client attached to a specific processor to access data
`in any storage device within the storage area network because all storage devices are accessible to
`all processors.
`
`Compaq is developing ServerNet, on the other hand, as the server node-to-server node interconnect
`within Compaq clusters because ServerNet features very low latency in server node-to-server node
`communications. Current implementations of ServerNet use a copper interface. Future
`
`.................................................................................................................................................................
`
`
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 3
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`implementations will use fiber and leverage the physical level and encoding of Fibre Channel, as
`does Gigabit Ethernet.
`
`Commonality of architecture at the physical level of these three technologies promotes the use of
`common parts and allows the use of the same infrastructure for Fibre Channel, Gigabit Ethernet,
`and ServerNet.
`
`W H A T I S F I B R E C H A N N E L?
`Fibre Channel is the general name of an integrated set of standards being developed by committees
`accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). This set of standards defines new
`protocols for flexible information transfer. Fibre Channel is an industry standard interconnect and
`high-performance serial I/O protocol that is media independent and supports simultaneous transfer
`of many different protocols.
`
`to keep pace with increasing host processor performance
`
`to keep pace with growing data-intensive applications
`
`to provide a practical and inexpensive means for high-speed transfer of large amounts of data
`
`Development of the Fibre Channel standards began in 1988. These standards are being developed
`to meet several objectives:
`•
`•
`•
`•
`•
`•
`•
`•
`
`to ensure the integrity of data
`
`to support multiple physical interface alternatives
`
`to provide a common interface for all data traffic
`
`to provide a means of transmitting data with very low error rates
`
`to separate logical protocol from physical interface, allowing transport of multiple protocols
`over the same interface
`
`•
`
`to allow simultaneous transfer of many different protocols over the same interface
`
`Channel and Network Functions
`In business computing there are two basic protocols for device communication: channels and
`networks. A channel is an interface between a host computer and I/O peripherals such as tape
`drives, disks, and printers. The host system has knowledge of all the peripheral devices attached to
`it, so this is a structured, predictable, hardware-intensive environment with relatively low software
`overhead.
`
`A network, on the other hand, comprises distributed devices that may include mainframes,
`workstations, and file servers. A network has its own protocol and is an unstructured environment
`because almost any device in the network can communicate with any other device at any time
`(peer-to-peer communication). This environment has more overhead than a channel because more
`software support is required to verify access permission, set up sessions, and route transactions
`correctly.
`
`Fibre Channel is superior as a traditional channel for attaching storage devices in a robust fashion.
`The use of fiber optics for the transmission media provides for extremely low error rates. Fibre
`Channel incorporates both a powerful encoding scheme and a strong cyclic redundancy check
`(CRC) on each message frame, ensuring data integrity. Fibre Channel uses a topology (either a
`loop or a switch) to provide connectivity. The capability to provide scalable connectivity and the
`peer-to-peer basis of the Fibre Channel architecture are the key enablers for networking. Fibre
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 4
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`Channel is now the only standard that can perform both the traditional channel and network
`functions simultaneously on the same port.
`
`Interconnect Topologies
`Fibre Channel nodes each have one or more ports that enable external communication. Each port
`uses two fibres, one for outgoing information and the other for incoming information. The pair of
`fibres is called a link. All the components that connect ports comprise an interconnect topology.
`
`Various topologies are used to provide connectivity between Fibre Channel ports. The two basic
`topologies used today are Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop (FC-AL) and the fabric switch. Both are
`illustrated in Figure 1.
`
`Arbitrated
`Loop
`
`Switched
`
`Fabric
`
`Figure 1. Simplified depiction of non-blocking cross-point switch topology and of FC-AL topology
`
`A fabric switch allows multiple pairs of nodes to communicate with each other simultaneously.
`Therefore, as more nodes are added, the aggregate data throughput capability can increase
`incrementally. A fabric switch requires a cross-point switching function and the intelligence to
`make the connections. A pair of transceivers is required to form the link between the attaching port
`and the port on the switch. These transceivers add to the cost of the switch.
`
`The Fibre Channel Arbitrated Loop is a serial interface that creates logical point-to-point
`connections between ports with the minimum number of transceivers and without a centralized
`switching function. FC-AL therefore provides a lower cost solution. The bandwidth of a Fibre
`Channel loop is shared by all ports on the loop. A single pair of ports on the loop communicates at
`one time, while the other ports on the loop act as repeaters.
`
`Hubs are useful in configuring the Arbitrated Loop. A hub contains several ports that are internally
`connected in a loop. Each port is fitted with a port bypass switch to maintain the continuity of the
`loop should a controller or device attached to the port be powered off or malfunction. A hub port
`can be given the ability to accept either electrical or optical input. This capability is useful in
`configuration. For instance, if it were desirable to locate the hub and controllers some distance
`from the server, an optical connection (long wave or short wave) could be used between the server
`and hub while copper connections could be used between the hub and controllers. Hubs can be
`cascaded to provide additional ports for more connectivity.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 5
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`Structure of Transmitted Information
`In network terminology, a block of information to be transmitted or processed is called a packet. A
`packet is sent as a series of one or more frames. A frame is a block of bytes plus control
`information.
`
`With Fibre Channel, the structure of transmitted information is a bit more complex. Figure 2
`illustrates the structure of information transmitted via Fibre Channel interconnects. The lowest
`level of the structure is the frame, which is encapsulated with special ordered sets that define the
`start of frame (SOF) and end of frame (EOF). Contents of the frame include the frame header
`(which contains additional controls, the source address, and the destination address); up to 2112
`bytes of payload; and a cyclic redundancy check field (CRC). The payload number, 2112, stems
`from the requirement to handle 2048 bytes of actual payload plus an optional 64-byte header.
`Payload can consist of data or control information. The source and destination address fields are
`each 24 bits long. These long fields provide a very high degree of future connectivity, more than
`16 million addresses.
`
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`Figure 2. Structure of information transmitted via Fibre Channel interconnects
`
`The second level in the hierarchy is the sequence. Each sequence is composed of one or more
`frames that contain payload and are specific to a particular protocol. The Small Computer System
`Interface (SCSI) protocol is an example.
`
`The third level in the hierarchy is the exchange. An exchange can be equated to a complete I/O
`transfer, such as a SCSI read operation. An exchange is composed of one or more sequences. For
`example, the SCSI protocol uses individual sequences for the command phase, data phase, and
`status phase.
`
`Functional Levels
`Five functional levels are included in the Fibre Channel standard: FC-0 through FC-4. These
`levels are descriptive only. To allow efficiency and tradeoffs in implementation and high
`performance, a physical interface between these levels is intentionally not part of this architecture.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 6
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`FC-0 defines the physical characteristics of the interface and media. To allow for maximum
`flexibility, use of existing media and different technologies, and meeting a wide variety of system
`requirements, the standard includes many variants. For example, it includes copper and fiber optic
`media with speeds of 12.5 megabytes per second (MB/s) and continuously doubling to
`106.25 MB/s, or 1.0625 gigabits per second (Gb/s), commonly referred to as full speed. Tables 1
`and 2 list some of the Fibre Channel media options available today. Speeds of 2 and 4 Gb/s have
`also been addressed by the standards working group responsible for Fibre Channel.
`
`TABLE 1: OPTICAL MEDIA INCLUDED IN THE FIBRE CHANNEL STANDARD
`
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`FC-1 defines the encoding/decoding and transmission protocol. The dc-balanced 8B/10B code has
`excellent properties for transmission and allows for low-cost component design, clock recovery,
`and error detection. An 8-bit byte is encoded into 10 bits for transmission and is then decoded at
`the receiving end. Some of the unused code points, which have special properties, are used to form
`special characters. These characters are used to form ordered sets for signaling and frame
`delineation.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 7
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`FC-2 is the framing and signaling protocol level. It defines how data is transported from one port
`to the next. The structure of information transmitted via Fibre Channel interconnects was described
`in the previous section and Figure 2.
`
`FC-3 provides common services such as striping of data or multicast operations. This level is not
`used in current implementations.
`
`FC-4 specifies the mapping of upper level protocols to the lower levels of Fibre Channel.
`Examples of current mappings include these protocols:
`• Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
`•
`Intelligent Peripheral Interface 3 (IPI-3)
`• High Performance Parallel Interface (HIPPI)
`•
`Internet Protocol (IP)
`•
`IEEE 802.2
`• Single Byte Command Code Set Mapping (SBCCS)
`
`Classes of Service
`The Fibre Channel standard currently describes three classes of service. Others are being
`developed to address needs for guaranteed bandwidth.
`
`Class 1 is a switched circuit connection, like that used in telephone systems. Once a connection is
`established, the connecting parties/ports can use the entire bandwidth in both directions. The
`connection is established using a special start of frame (SOF), the source address, and the
`destination address in the frame header. The connection remains open for frame transmission until
`it is terminated by recognition of the End of Frame Disconnect (EOF) on the last frame of
`transmission. This type of service accommodates the traditional channel environment, ensuring
`rapid, uninterrupted communication with an extremely high degree of data integrity checking and
`positive/negative acknowledgment of frame reception.
`
`Class 2 provides for frame switching. Frames to different recipients can be transmitted—
`multiplexed in time—to different recipients. Likewise, a recipient may receive frames from many
`different sources, multiplexed in time. Class 2 provides the same high degree of checking and
`positive/negative acknowledgment of frame reception that Class 1 provides.
`
`Class 3 is much like Class 2 but with one major difference: there is no acknowledgment of frame
`reception. Today’s networks operate in this mode at the hardware level. Class 3 is also used for
`the attachment of disk storage on FC-AL. The topology of the loop ensures in-order delivery; and
`the SCSI protocol that is used implicitly provides positive/negative acknowledgment, ensuring data
`integrity.
`
`W H Y C H O O S E F I B R E C H A N N E L?
`Enterprise computing customers are eager for interconnect technology that can overcome inherent
`I/O and physical limitations of current parallel SCSI. Serial interfaces have several advantages
`over their parallel counterparts that are discussed in the following section. Compaq believes that
`Fibre Channel is overall the best serial interconnect technology for high-performance, high-
`availability external storage. Because Fibre Channel is an industry standard, not a proprietary
`initiative, it enables customers to move more easily to the most cost-effective solutions while
`preserving their current investments.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 8
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`Connectivity and Capacity
`Fibre Channel increases connectivity. As ever-faster processors and multiprocessing systems are
`being built with smaller footprints, it becomes more and more difficult to attach enough parallel
`interfaces to a system to provide the necessary I/O bandwidth and connectivity.
`
`Fibre Channel solves this problem. More than 100 devices or nodes can be attached on a single
`FC-AL loop. Large subsystems of devices can be attached to nodes on expansion modules, and
`expansion modules can be cascaded to connect far more subsystems. The scale of connectivity
`provides the basis for centrally managing primary and secondary storage. In addition, integrating
`Fibre Channel on the processor board could significantly reduce the number of parallel buses and
`adapters needed in the future.
`
`Fibre Channel provides greater connectivity per PCI slot, which results in greater capacity. By the
`second half of 1997, the capacity of typical storage systems using 9-gigabyte, 1.6-inch drives will
`increase to 432 gigabytes per PCI slot. If six PCI slots were used for storage, then the raw capacity
`would be 2.6 terabytes.
`
`In late 1998, the capacity per PCI slot will increase to a value still to be identified. A conservative
`estimate is that capacity per PCI slot will double. Through expansion of hub capability and through
`cascading of hubs, the number of additional spindles attachable per slot will also grow
`significantly.
`
`Fibre Channel is the only interconnect that can be used both for traditional channel functions, such
`as attachment of primary and secondary storage subsystems, and for networking. Both functions—
`in fact, a multiplicity of protocols—can be incorporated in the same host adapter, saving precious
`slots. Fibre Channel technology also makes it possible to architect third party transfers in which
`data from a disk subsystem can be transferred directly to the requester, without having to pass
`through the server. (In this situation, the server would still maintain control of the operation.)
`Third party transfers can significantly increase data availability and system performance.
`
`Availability and Reliability
`In a typical bus environment with traditional SCSI interfaces, demands on hardware drivers vary
`with the number of devices on the bus and the cable lengths. Fibre Channel, on the other hand,
`provides logical point-to-point connections between nodes in which only two wires or fibers
`connect a device. Use of redundancy techniques in the implementation will enable transfer of data
`over two separate data paths for increased reliability.
`
`As the Fibre Channel Loop Community notes in its publication Ultra SCSI to Fibre: The Preferred
`Performance Path: “FC-AL is the only interface designed to support simultaneous hot plugability.
`The FC-AL interface’s loop redundancy circuit allows the removal or insertion of multiple drives
`from an active loop without impacting data throughput. This also provides for better data
`availability.”
`
`Transmission Distance
`Increased transmission distance is another significant advantage of Fibre Channel. With parallel
`SCSI, the maximum distance between a host server and an external storage device is 12 feet, or
`approximately 3.5 meters. This precludes mirroring of data at an off-site location for disaster
`recovery. As previously indicated in Table 1, with short-wave lasers and 50-micron multimode
`fibre, a Fibre Channel interconnect can easily achieve transmission distances of approximately 500
`meters. With long wave lasers and 9-micron single mode fibre, Fibre Channel can transfer data for
`distances of up to approximately 10 kilometers, allowing for remote mirroring of data at very high
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 9
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`data rates. The longer communication links of Fibre Channel also allow multiple systems to share
`the same storage.
`
`Performance
`Bandwidth is another important advantage of Fibre Channel. Peak bandwidth of Ultra Wide SCSI
`is 40 MB/s. Ultra 2 Wide SCSI will offer a maximum bandwidth of 80 MB/s. Fibre Channel
`bandwidth, currently at 100 MB/s per link in both directions, is targeted to grow to 200 MB/s and
`400 MB/s per link in the future.
`
`Cost Effectiveness
`Fibre Channel reduces the number of parallel buses and expensive controllers required to support
`numerous drives and reduces the complexity of cabling for multiple controllers. Moreover,
`because Fibre Channel cabling is smaller and more flexible than SCSI cable, it also improves cable
`deployment and management.
`
`As costs come down and as requirements for better scalability increase, there will be a shift from
`SCSI to FC-AL on the device interface for higher end systems. However, the use of SCSI will
`persist for years for smaller systems where scaling, distance, and connectivity are not issues. An
`FC-AL connection to a storage subsystem, whose drives are attached to a SCSI interface, can give
`distance, scalability, and cost advantages.
`
`Today Gigabit Ethernet uses the optical piece of the Fibre Channel physical level as its base
`technology. This fact should lead to a common infrastructure that will allow customers to choose
`the right solution for their applications without having to rewire the premises. The ability to use
`common parts and infrastructure will lower the cost of the solution.
`
`Flexibility and Scalability
`The ability of Fibre Channel to handle different protocols simultaneously on the same physical
`hardware is a major benefit available today. Equally important, there is lots of room for future
`enhancements to Fibre Channel. Higher bandwidth, different media, additional protocol mappings,
`and new topologies are a few of the ways Fibre Channel technology can evolve in the future.
`
`Status of Fibre Channel in the Industry
`In its publication Fibre Channel FAQ (May 1996), the Fibre Channel Loop Community noted that
`Fibre Channel is becoming the “defacto connectivity standard for high-speed storage access and
`server clustering, and is a natural solution for gigabit enterprise backbones, and gigabit LANS for
`high-speed storage, image, video and mass data transfer applications.” Approximately two-thirds
`of the storage industry now supports the Fibre Channel standard, including all major disk drive
`vendors. Essential Fibre Channel components are now becoming available: protocol chips, 1-Gb/s
`transceivers, media modules, cables, connectors, test equipment, and device drivers. Fibre Channel
`subsystems are now in development: disk drives, drive arrays, host adapters, RAID controllers,
`fabric switches, and storage subsystems.
`
`There is considerable activity in the Fibre Channel Working Group to enhance and improve the
`architecture of FC-AL. However, to protect current and future customer investment, maintaining
`backward compatibility is a firm requirement.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 10
`
`

`
`7   %# (cont.)
`
`C O M P A Q’ S I N V O L V E M E N T W I T H F I B R E C H A N N E L
`Compaq actively participates in the following industry standardization efforts for interconnect
`technology:
`• Technical Committee T10 of the ANSI Accredited Standards Committee NCITS (National
`Committee for Information Technical Standards), formerly known as X3T10 and responsible
`for SCSI
`• Technical Committee T11 of the ANSI Accredited Standards Committee NCITS, formerly
`known as X3T11 and responsible for Fibre Channel
`• Fibre Channel Association (FCA)
`• Fibre Channel Loop Community (FCLC)
`• Component Supplier Standardization
`To ensure interoperability of its products, Compaq is participating in joint testing with the other
`members of FCLC and FCA, the University of New Hampshire, and the University of Minnesota.
`
`F I B R E C H A N N E L: A N E W P A R A D I G M
`Fibre Channel technology enables a new paradigm. It eliminates the distance barrier in storage
`configurations and allows storage to be distributed, thereby enabling higher aggregate bandwidth,
`redundancy, and scalability of capacity, cache, and I/O processing power for the enterprise. At the
`same time, it maintains capability for enhanced, centralized control and management of both
`primary and secondary storage. Fibre Channel enables the future coexistence of networking and
`storage attachment using the same infrastructure and physical components. Fibre Channel also
`serves as the basis for architecting third party transfers, by which the client can move data directly
`from or to the source without passing the data through the host bus memory system. Third party
`transfers free up these valuable resources for use by the host processors.
`
`C O N C L U S I O N
`The enterprise computing platform of the future will encompass industry standard hardware,
`software, and interconnection. Compaq is basing its strategic direction for high-performance, high-
`availability external storage on the conviction that Fibre Channel is the best interconnect
`technology to overcome I/O and physical limitations of SCSI technology and to meet the expanding
`needs for network data storage.
`
`Compaq continues to lead the change to open-system industry standards. As a technology leader,
`Compaq proactively contributes to development of new industry standards and rapidly incorporates
`them into innovative products fitting the high-volume business model and offering cost-effective
`solutions to our customers.
`
`................................................................................................................................................................
`
`ECG009.1097
`
`
`
`Oracle Ex. 1028, pg. 11