`ORGANISATION INTERNATIONALE DE NORMALISATION
`ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11
`CODING OF MOVING PICTURES AND AUDIO
`
`
`ISO/IEC JTC1/SC29/WG11 N4032
`Singapore, March 2001
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`Title:
`Source:
`Status:
`Editors:
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`Introduction to MPEG-7 (v3.0)
`Requirements
`approved
`Neil Day (Digital Garage Inc, JP), José M. Martínez (UPM-GTI, ES)
`
`
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`1. Introduction to MPEG-7
`How many times have you seen science fiction movies such as 2001: A Space Odyssey and thought, “Wow, we’re
`so far away from having any of the fancy gadgets depicted in these movies!” In 2001, Hal, the talking computer
`intelligently navigates and retrieves information or runs complex operations instigated by spoken input. Or how
`about using an image-based query, say an image of the motorbike used by Arnold Schwartzenegger in the movie T2,
`to find images of similarly looking motorbikes. Dreams or reality?
`As more and more audiovisual information becomes available from many sources around the world, many people
`would like to use this information for various purposes. This challenging situation led to the need for a solution that
`quickly and efficiently searches for and/or filters various types of multimedia material that’s interesting to the user.
`For example, finding information by rich-spoken queries, hand-drawn images, and humming improves the
`user-friendliness of computer systems and finally addresses what most people have been expecting from computers.
`For professionals, a new generation of applications will enable high-quality information search and retrieval. For
`example, TV program producers can search with “laser-like precision” for occurrences of famous events or
`references to certain people, stored in thousands of hours of audiovisual records, in order to collect material for a
`program. This will reduce program production time and increase the quality of its content.
`MPEG-7 is a multimedia content description standard, (to be defined by September 2001), that addresses how
`humans expect to interact with computer systems, since it develops rich descriptions that reflect those expectations.
`This document gives an introductory overview of the MPEG-7 standard. More information about MPEG-7 can be
`the MPEG-7 website http://drogo.cselt.it/mpeg/ and
`found at
`the MPEG-7 Industry Focus Group
`website http://www.mpeg-7.com. These web pages contain links to a wealth of information about MPEG,
`including many publicly available documents, several lists of ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ and links to other
`MPEG-7 web pages.
`
`1.1 What Are the MPEG Standards?
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`The Moving Picture Coding Experts Group (MPEG) is a working group of the Geneva-based ISO/IEC standards
`organization, (International Standards Organization/International Electro-technical Committee) in charge of the
`development of international standards for compression, decompression, processing, and coded representation of
`moving pictures, audio, and a combination of the two. MPEG-7 then is an ISO/IEC standard being developed by
`MPEG, the committee that also developed the Emmy Award-winning standards known as MPEG-1 and MPEG-2,
`and the 1999 MPEG-4 standard.
`• MPEG-1: For the storage and retrieval of moving pictures and audio on storage media.
`• MPEG-2: For digital television, it’s the timely response for the satellite broadcasting and cable television
`industries in their transition from analog to digital formats.
`• MPEG-4: Codes content as objects and enables those objects to be manipulated individually or collectively on
`an audiovisual scene.
`MPEG-1, -2, and -4 make content available. MPEG-7 lets you to find the content you need.
`Besides these standards, MPEG is currently also working in MPEG-21 a Technical Report about Multimedia
`Framework.
`
`1.2 Defining MPEG-7
`MPEG-7 is a standard for describing features of multimedia content.
`
`1.2.1 Qualifying MPEG-7
`MPEG-7 provides the world’s richest set of audio-visual descriptions.
`
`These descriptions are based on catalogue (e.g., title, creator, rights), semantic (e.g., the who, what, when, where
`information about objects and events) and structural (e.g., the colour histogram - measurement of the amount of
`colour associated with an image or the timbre of an recorded instrument) features of the AV content and leverages
`on AV data representation defined by MPEG-1, 2 and 4.
`
`Comprehensive Scope of Data Interoperability.
`
`MPEG-7 uses XML Schema as the language of choice for content description MPEG-7 will be interoperable with
`other leading standards such as, SMPTE Metadata Dictionary, Dublin Core, EBU P/Meta, and TV Anytime.
`
`1.3 The Key Role of MPEG-7
`MPEG-7, formally named “Multimedia Content Description Inter-face,” is the standard that describes multimedia
`content so users can search, browse, and retrieve that content more efficiently and effectively than they could using
`today’s mainly text-based search engines. It’s a standard for describing the features of multimedia content.
`However…
`MPEG-7 will not standardize the (automatic) extraction of AV descriptions/features. Nor will it specify the search
`engine (or any other program) that can make use of the description. It will be left to the creativity and innovation of
`search engine companies, for example, to manipulate and massage the MPEG-7-described content into search
`indices that can be used by their browser and retrieval tools, (see figure 1).
`
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`2. MPEG-7 Technical Activities
`It is important to note that MPEG-7 addresses many different applications in many different environments, which
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`means that it needs to provide a flexible and extensible framework for describing audio-visual data. Therefore,
`MPEG-7 will define a multimedia library of methods and tools. It will standardize:
`• A set of descriptors: A descriptor (D) is a representation of a feature that defines the syntax and semantics of the
`feature representation.
`• A set of description schemes: A description scheme (DS) specifies the structure and semantics of the relationships
`between its components, which may be both descriptors and description schemes.
`• A language that specifies description schemes, the Description Definition Language (DDL): It also allows for
`the extension and modification of existing description schemes. MPEG-7 adopted XML Schema Language as the
`MPEG-7 DDL. However, the DDL requires some specific extensions to XML Schema Language to satisfy all the
`requirements of MPEG-7. These extensions are currently being discussed through liaison activities between MPEG
`and W3C, the group standardizing XML.
`• One or more ways (textual, binary) to encode descriptions: A coded description is a description that’s been
`encoded to fulfill relevant requirements such as compression efficiency, error resilience, and random access.
`
`Feature Extraction:
`Content analysis (D, DS)
`Feature extraction (D, DS)
`Annotation tools (DS)
`Authoring (DS)
`
`MPEG-7 Scope:
`Description Schemes (DSs)
`Descriptors (Ds)
`Language (DDL)
`Ref:
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`Figure 1: The Scope of MPEG-7
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`MPEG-7
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`Search Engine:
`Searching & filtering
`Classification
`Manipulation
`Summarization Indexing
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`2.1 Organization of MPEG-7 Description Tools
`Over 100 MPEG-7 Description Tools are currently being developed and refined. The relationships between the
`MPEG-7 Description Tools are outlined in Figure 2.
`The basic elements, at the lower level, deal with basic data types, mathematical structures, schema tools, linking
`and media localization tools, as well as basic DSs, which are elementary components of more complex DSs. The
`Schema tools section specifies elements for creating valid MPEG-7 schema instance documents and description
`fragments.
`In addition, this section specifies tools for managing and organizing the elements and datatypes of the schema.
`Based on this lower level, content description and management elements can be defined. These elements describe
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`the content from several viewpoints. Currently five viewpoints are defined: creation and production, media, usage,
`structural aspects, and conceptual aspects. The first three elements primarily address information that’s related to
`the management of the content (content management), whereas the last two are mainly devoted to the description
`of perceivable information (content description).
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`Content organization
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`Collections
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`Models
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`Creation &
`Production
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`Media
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`Usage
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`Content management
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`Content description
`Semantic
`Structural
`aspects
`aspects
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`Navigation &
`Access
`Summaries
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`Views
`Views
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`Variations
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`User
`interaction
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`User
`Preferences
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`User
`History
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`Basic elements
`Schema
`Tools
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`Basic
`datatypes
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`Links & media
`localization
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`Basic
`Tools
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`Figure 2: Overview of MPEG-7 Multimedia Description Schemes (DSs)
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`• Creation and Production: Contains meta information that describes the creation and production of the content;
`typical features include title, creator, classification, and purpose of the creation. Most of the time this information is
`author-generated since it can’t be extracted from the content.
`• Usage: Contains meta information that’s related to the usage of the content; typical features involve rights holders,
`access rights, publication, and financial information. This information may be subject to change during the lifetime
`of the AV content.
`• Media: Contains the description of the storage media; typical features include the storage format, the encoding of
`the AV content, and elements for the identification of the media. Note: Several instances of storage media for the
`same AV content can be described.
`• Structural aspects: Contains the description of the AV content from the viewpoint of its structure. The description
`is structured around segments that represent physical, spatial, temporal, or spatio-temporal components of the AV
`content. Each segment may be described by signal-based features (color, texture, shape, motion, audio) and some
`elementary semantic information.
`• Conceptual Aspects: Contains a description of the AV content from the viewpoint of its conceptual notions.
`The five sets of Description Tools are presented here as separate entities, however, they are interrelated and may be
`partially included in each other. For example, Media, Usage or Creation & Production elements can be attached to
`individual segments involved in the structural description of the content. Tools are also defined for navigation and
`access and there is another set of tools for Content organization which addresses the organization of content by
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`classification, by the definition of collections and by modeling. Finally, the last set of tools is User Interaction
`which describes user’s preferences for the consumption of multimedia content and usage history.
`2.2 MPEG-7 Working Groups
`Currently MPEG-7 concentrates on the specification of description tools (Descriptors and Description Schemes),
`together with the development of the MPEG-7 reference software, known as XM (eXperimentation Model). The
`XML Schema Language was chosen as the base for the Description Definition Language (DDL).
`The MPEG-7 Audio group develops a range of Description Tools, from generic audio descriptors (e.g., waveform
`and spectrum envelopes, fundamental frequency) to more sophisticated description tools like Spoken Content and
`Timbre. Generic Audio Description tools will allow the search for similar voices, by searching similar envelopes
`and fundamental frequencies of a voice sample against a database of voices. The Spoken Content Description
`Scheme (DS) is designed to represent the output of a great number of state of the art Automatic Speech Recognition
`systems, containing both words and phonemes representations and most likely transitions. This alleviates the
`problem of out-of-vocabulary words, allowing retrieval even when the original word was wrongly decoded. The
`Timbre descriptors (Ds) describe the perceptual features of instrument sound, that make two sounds having the
`same pitch and loudness appear different to the human ear. These descriptors allow searching for melodies
`independently of the instruments.
`The MPEG-7 Visual group is developing four groups of description tools: Color, Texture, Shape and Motion.
`Color and Texture Description Tools will allow the search and filtering of visual content (images, graphics, video)
`by dominant color or textures in some (arbitrarily shaped) regions or the whole image. Shape Description Tools
`will facilitate “query by sketch” or by contour similarity in image databases, or, for example, searching trademarks
`in registration databases. Motion Description Tools will allow searching of videos with similar motion patterns that
`can be applicable to news (e.g. similar movements in a soccer or football game) or to surveillance applications (e.g.,
`detect intrusion as a movement towards the safe zone).
`The MPEG-7 Multimedia Description Schemes group is developing the description tools dealing with generic
`and audiovisual and archival features. Its central tools deal with content management and content description as
`outlined in section 2.1.
`The MPEG-7 Implementation Studies group is designing and implementing the MPEG-7 Reference Software
`known as XM.
`The MPEG-7 Systems group is developing the DDL and the binary format (known as BiM), besides working in
`the definition of the terminal architecture and access units.
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`3. MPEG-7 Application Domains
`The elements that MPEG-7 standardizes will support a broad a range of applications (for example, multimedia
`digital libraries, broadcast media selection, multimedia editing, home entertainment devices, etc.). MPEG-7 will
`also make the web as searchable for multimedia content as it is searchable for text today. This would apply
`especially to large content archives, which are being made accessible to the public, as well as to multimedia
`catalogues enabling people to identify content for purchase. The information used for content retrieval may also be
`used by agents, for the selection and filtering of broadcasted "push" material or for personalized advertising.
`Additionally, MPEG-7 descriptions will allow fast and cost-effective usage of the underlying data, by enabling
`semi-automatic multimedia presentation and editing. All domains making use of multimedia will benefit from
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`MPEG-7 including,
` Digital libraries, Education (image catalogue, musical dictionary, Bio-medical imaging catalogues…)
` Multimedia editing (personalised electronic news service, media authoring)
` Cultural services (history museums, art galleries, etc.),
` Multimedia directory services (e.g. yellow pages, Tourist information, Geographical information systems)
` Broadcast media selection (radio channel, TV channel,…)
`Journalism (e.g. searching speeches of a certain politician using his name, his voice or his face),
`
` E-Commerce (personalised advertising, on-line catalogues, directories of e-shops,…)
` Surveillance (traffic control, surface transportation, non-destructive testing in hostile environments, etc.),
`Investigation services (human characteristics recognition, forensics),
`
` Home Entertainment (systems for the management of personal multimedia collections, including
`manipulation of content, e.g. home video editing, searching a game, karaoke,…)
` Social (e.g. dating services),
`
`3.1 Typical applications enabled by MPEG-7 technology include:
`• Audio: I want to search for songs by humming or whistling a tune or, using an excerpt of Pavarotti’s voice, get a
`list of Pavarotti’s records and video clips in which Pavarotti sings or simply makes an appearance. Or, play a few
`notes on a keyboard and retrieve a list of musical pieces similar to the required tune, or images matching the notes
`in a certain way, e.g. in terms of emotions.
`• Graphics: Sketch a few lines on a screen and get a set of images containing similar graphics, logos, and
`ideograms.
`• Image: Define objects, including color patches or textures, and get examples from which you select items to
`compose your image. Or check if your company logo was advertised on a TV channel as contracted.
`• Visual: Allow mobile phone access to video clips of goals scored in a soccer game, or automatically search and
`retrieve any unusual movements from surveillance videos.
`• Multimedia: On a given set of multimedia objects, describe movements and relations between objects and so
`search for animations fulfilling the described temporal and spatial relations. Or, describe actions and get a list of
`scenarios containing such actions.
`
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`3.2 Examples of MPEG-7 Applications
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`The following applications are examples of the type of solutions that MPEG-7 can solve. These application
`examples represent development work in progress. There are many more applications being developed around the
`world, (see the MPEG-7 Industry Focus Group website, www.mpeg-7.com).
`
`3.2.1 Content Retrieval using Image as the Query
`Figure 3 shows possible ways to search for visual content using the inherent structural features of an image. In this
`example there are four image features detailed. The color histogram feature (1) of an image allows me to search for
`images that have the same color. Note, the position of the colors is not important but rather the amount of similar
`color in the image is important. The next feature, spatial color distribution (2) allows me to search for images where
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`the location of the same color is important. You can see that the added object in the right-bottom flag does not affect
`this type of search. You can additionally search for images that have a similar edge or contour profile as in the
`spatial edge distribution (3) search technique. Note, color does not make a difference to this type of search. Finally,
`you can see an example of searching by object shape (4). Here, the color and edge profiles are not important.
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`Figure 3: Search using image features
`3.2.2 Movie Tool–better than just a name, I will put a reference to the presentation at the A, or a CE, or ...- btw,
`I "hate" this demo/system/... it is not MPEG-7 at all, even not in requirements!I am thinking of putting in
`another demo here anyway, eg. LG Electronics News Browser or Ricoh’s Movie Tool. This Mobile demo is using
`MPEG-7, though I do understand the areas which are also problematic and which we discussed in Singapore)
`This is an MPEG-7 description tool for video with easy-to-use visual interface (see figure 5). It is possible to
`compose a logical structure of the target content, and to also edit and output an MPEG-7 instance file using this tool.
`Automatic segmentation of video content is done by detecting scene changes. Manual annotation is also possible to
`allow users provide additional information about the content. The content is arranged in a hierarchy based on topic
`and sub-topics where visual clips are summarized using thumbnails. In the ideal world, automatic description and
`organization of content is most desirable but the variety of possible meanings associated with semantic content
`make it a difficult task. This Movie Tool, though, helps speed up the manual annotation process because of its
`friendly visual interface environment. Currently, this tool operates on MPEG-1 input content. Since the logical
`structure of the content is mapped directly to its MPEG-7 instance in the editor, users can easily see the
`relationships between content and its related MPEG-7 description. This feature provides is very useful when trying
`to understand the usage of MPEG-7 description tools and their relationship to content.
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`4. MPEG-7 in the 21st Century Media Landscape
`MPEG-7 is about the future of media in the 21st century. This is not an overstatement. MPEG-7 provides a
`comprehensive and flexible framework for describing the content of multimedia. To describe content implies
`knowledge of elements it consists of, as well as, knowledge of interrelations between those elements. The most
`straightforward application is multimedia management, where such knowledge is prerequisite for efficiency and
`accuracy. However, there are other serious implications. Knowledge of the structural features of multimedia
`information as well as its semantic features will help generate solutions that will provide more comprehensive and
`accurate indexing and search applications, (leading to greater ability for content manipulation, content reuse - and
`thus new content creation). Many issues, it is true, remain including copyrights issues and interoperability between
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`applications and systems that wish to adhere to the MPEG-7 standard. But such issues are balanced by incredible
`economical, educational, and ergonomic benefits that will be brought by MPEG-7 technology. Potential concerns
`will be resolved, and after some years hence, we will not be able to imagine media without MPEG-7 technologies.
`
`Compose
`a logical structure
`
`Annotate
`MPEG-7
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`Figure 5: Movie Tool
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`Preview
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`Detect
`temporal / spatial keys
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`5.Advantages of MPEG-7 – A Summary
`1. MPEG Standards have been Successful in the Marketplace.
`MPEG standards, to date, have been extremely successful in the marketplace due to MPEG's unique process of
`sharing leading-edge technology while protecting intellectual property. MPEG-7 builds on the demonstrated
`success of this process.
`2. Taking Advantage of MPEG-7 Expertise
`
`The contributors to MPEG-7 include experts in every portion of the content value chain: production,
`post-production, delivery, and consumption. Through this process MPEG-7 has standardized description schemes
`for content description, management, and organization, as well as navigation, access, user preferences and usage
`history.
`3. Interoperability: rapid uptake of MPEG-7, as it is built on enabling technologies and standards.
`
`MPEG-7 is harmonizing with has employed (or has otherwise harmonized with) other standards that have
`demonstrated success and acceptance in both traditional media and new media businesses, e.g., W3C (XML, XML
`Schema), IETF (URI, URN, URL), Dublin Core, ISO/ANSI Thesaurus guidelines, SMPTE Metadata Dictionary,
`TV-Anytime, etc. This will allow rapid integration into your company's products
`
`ATSC example: MPEG-7 brings ubiquitous MPEG-2 platforms new EPG functionality
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`Various MPEG-2 solutions are looking to MPEG-7 as the standard for specifying additional program metadata. For
`example, ATSC recently announced an “RFP for Metadata for Advance Electronic Program Guide (EPG)
`Functionality”. This request for proposal applies to a protocol for the carriage of metadata in an ATSC
`MPEG-2-based digital television broadcast stream to support advanced EPG functionality in a DTV receiver. The
`RFP explicitly states that “it is highly desirable that any ATSC standard for enhanced metadata to support advanced
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`EPG features should be harmonized with other standards efforts, such as MPEG-7…”
`(Request for Proposal For Potential Revisions to ATSC Standards in the Area of Metadata for Advanced EPG
`Functionality, ATSC T3/S8 Doc 427, 29 January 2001, http://www.atsc.org/T3S8_Adv_EPG_RFP.pdf )
`4. Data Exchange between Subsidiaries
`MPEG-7 will enable the content management system at one subsidiary to leverage the content of another subsidiary.
`For example, AOL, CNN and Warner Bros could categorize, exchange, process and manage assets across
`boundaries or along an entire supply chain, e.g., from production house to advertising agency to CNN.
`5. Market Potential for MPEG-7 Applications
`According to a Goldman Sachs projection, the market for content management tools will grow from
`US$378Million in 2000 to US$4.5Billion by 2005. Interoperable tools sell better than non-interoperable tools.
`MPEG-7 is the gold standard for content management interoperability, not just entertainment companies - but
`every company, every industry, everywhere.
`6. MPEG-7 will enable a New Generation of Multimedia Applications
`MPEG-7 uniquely provides comprehensive standardised multimedia description tools for content. Descriptions for
`the catalogue level (e.g. title), the semantic level (who, what, when, where) and the structural level (spatio-temporal
`region, color histogram, timbre, texture) will provide tools for creative developers to generate new waves of
`multimedia applications. Standardized MPEG-7 description tools, then, are a key enabler of the following
`application domains:
` Search Engines, Digital Libraries, Broadcast Networks, Entertainment and News Distributors, Streaming
`Businesses
` Dynamic start-up companies, searching for cutting edge technologies.
` Governmental, Educational, Law, Medical & Remedial Services, and Non-profit organizations looking for
`digital media solutions. For example, the U.S. Library of Congress receives over 10,000 multimedia items
`each week, and is committed to a) the long term preservation of these multimedia items in digital format, and
`b) making much of their collection accessible to U.S. citizens in digital format.
` XML, Metadata, Modeling/Simulation, & Surveillance Industries
` AI Practitioners, Content Creators and Providers.
`7. MPEG-4 and MPEG-7 Tools for Killer Applications
`With MPEG-7's sister standard, MPEG-4, an ideal combination is made for solutions that require efficient
`streaming of content, content manipulation, and indexing and retrieval of that content. In particular mobile
`application developers have already begun to use these two standards and the trend is set to hugely increase as the
`demand for visual and audio information services continues to grow.
`8. MPEG-7 Intellectual Property and Management Protection
`"MPEG works closely with representatives of the creative industries to ensure that the best possible protection of
`the rights of stakeholders is maintained both in content and in metadata
`9. MPEG-7 Makes Content More Valuable
`Stored audio-visual content, gathered over the years, by broadcasters, libraries, and publishers becomes more
`valuable because, with MPEG-7 indexing technology, more comprehensive methods are available for users to
`access and retrieve more detailed descriptions of that content.
`10. MPEG-7 provides a seamless path towards increasingly intelligent content management systems
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`We live in the age of convergence, from the level of production through to distribution and consumption. The
`technical hardware and communication infrastructure is evolving and will soon reach the point where computing
`and communications will become embedded in everyday objects and environments. Media will also then become
`ubiquitous. Ubiquitous media will create a huge demand for new content, and meeting this demand must involve
`fundamental changes to all stages of media production, management and delivery.
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`Media archives will become vast and interconnected pools of content, too large to be managed manually.
`Customization of content within programs, e.g. substitution of structural elements (characters, music, voices)
`according to viewer desires, content scaling for PDA, cell phones, will be not only possible, but easy and pleasant.
`MPEG-7 will enable the creation of tools, (through its structured combination of low level features and high-level
`meta-data), for coping with this "outbreak" of generic content.
`
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`6. REFERENCES
`MPEG-7 Documents and Software Reference (Experimental Model, XM)
`There are a number of public documents, describing MPEG-7 technology in much greater detail, available at the
`MPEG website (http://drogo.cselt.it/mpeg/). Information more focused to industry, including a publicly
`accessible news mailing
`list,
`is also available at
`the MPEG-7 Industry Focus Group website,
`(http://www.mpeg-7.com). At the latter site, tutorial overviews on MPEG-7 audio, visual, systems and the DDL
`technologies are available. Links to the MPEG-7 XM are accessible from the web sites allowing review and testing
`of the XM, (both Linux and Windows NT versions of the software exist).
`Related MPEG-7 summary documents include,
`MPEG-7 (Technical) Overview, W4031: Singapore, March, 2001
`MPEG-7 Projects and Demos, W4034: Singapore, March, 2001
`MPEG-7 Awareness Events (www.mpeg-7.com)
`A number of MPEG-7 Awareness Events have been held (Paris, Oct. 2000; Singapore, March 2001) highlighting
`MPEG-7 technology and demos. The aim of the Awareness Events is to encourage industry to interact with the
`MPEG-7 development community so that a standard is developed that closely reflects the needs of the multimedia
`content market. The next MPEG-7 Awareness Event will be held in the USA, October, 2001.
`MPEG-7 Personal Contacts
`MPEG Convenor:
`
`For Technical Issues:
`Requirements:
`Rob Koenen (rkoenen@intertrust.com)
`
`Audio:
`Adam Lindsay (atl@comp.lancs.ac.uk)
`
`
`Visual:
`Gary Sullivan (garysull@microsoft.com )
`
`
`Multimedia DS:
`John Smith (jsmith@us.ibm.com)
`
`Systems:
`Olivier Avaro (olivier.avaro@francetelecom.fr)
`
`XM Software Implementation: Stephan Herrmann (stephanh@lis.e-technik.tu-muenchen.de)
`MPEG-7 Industry Focus Group:
`Neil Day (neil@garage.co.jp), www.mpeg-7.com
`Neil Day, (neil@garage.co.jp), José M. Martínez (jms@gti.ssr.upm.es)
`Editors:
`
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`
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`Leonardo.Chiariglione (Leonardo.Chiariglione@CSELT.IT)
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`
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`Highlighted MPEG-7 Applications Contacts:
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`Query by Image (ETRI), Soo-Jun Park, psj@etri.re.kr, http://sir.etri.re.kr/~soop
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`MovieTool: kunieda@src.ricoh.co.jp
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