Modern Electric,
`Hybrid Electric, and
`Fuel Cell Vehicles
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`Modern Electric,
`Hybrid Electric, and
`Fuel Cell Vehicles
`
`Fundamentals, Theory, and Design
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`P O W E R E L E C T R O N I C S A N D
`A P P L I C A T I O N S S E R I E S
`Muhammad H. Rashid, Series Editor
`University of West Florida
`
`PUBLISHED TITLES
`
`Complex Behavior of Switching Power Converters
`Chi Kong Tse
`
`DSP-Based Electromechanical Motion Control
`Hamid A. Toliyat and Steven Campbell
`
`Advanced DC/DC Converters
`Fang Lin Luo and Hong Ye
`
`Renewable Energy Systems: Design and Analysis with
`Induction Generators
`M. Godoy Sim~oes and Felix A. Farret
`
`Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Active Filters
`Ali Emadi, Abdolhosein Nasiri, and Stoyan B. Bekiarov
`
`Electric Energy: An Introduction
`Mohamed El-Sharkawi
`
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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Modern electric, hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles: fundamentals,
`theory, and design/Mehrdad Ehsani ... [et al.].
`p. cm. – (Power electronics and applications series)
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-8493-3154-4 (alk. paper)
`1. Hybrid electric vehicles. 2. Fuel cells. I. Ehsani, Mehrdad. II. Title. III. Series.
`
`TL221.15.G39 2004
`629.22’93—dc22
`
`2004054249
`
`This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
`Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of ref-
`erences are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information,
`but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
`or for the consequences of their use.
`
`Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
`electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any infor-
`mation storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
`
`The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promo-
`tion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from
`CRC Press LLC for such copying.
`
`Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
`
`Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
`and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
`
`Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com
`
`© 2005 by CRC Press LLC
`No claim to original U.S. Government works
`
`International Standard Book Number 0-8493-3154-4
`Library of Congress Card Number 2004054249
`Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
`Printed on acid-free paper
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`To my wife, Zohreh, for her love and support
`Mehrdad Ehsani
`
`To my wife, Anni Liu, and my daughter, Yuan Gao
`Yimin Gao
`
`To my parents, professors, and mentors
`Sebastien E. Gay
`
`To my family, parents, and sister
`Ali Emadi
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`Preface
`
`The development of automobiles with heat engines is one of the greatest
`achievements of modern technology. However, the highly developed auto-
`motive industry and the large number of automobiles in use around the
`world have caused and are still causing serious problems for society and
`human life. Deterioration in air quality, global warming, and a decrease in
`petroleum resources are becoming the major threats to human beings. More
`and more stringent emissions and fuel consumption regulations are stimu-
`lating an interest in the development of safe, clean, and high-efficiency trans-
`portation. It has been well recognized that electric, hybrid electric, and fuel
`cell-powered drive train technologies are the most promising solutions to
`the problem of land transportation in the future.
`To meet the revolutionary challenge, an increasing number of North
`American and other engineering schools have started the academic disci-
`pline of advanced vehicle technologies in both undergraduate and graduate
`programs. In 1998, the principal author of this book shared his first lecture
`on “Advanced Vehicle Technologies — Design Methodology of Electric and
`Hybrid Electric Vehicles” with graduate students in mechanical and electri-
`cal engineering at Texas A&M University. While preparing the lecture, it was
`found that although there is a wealth of information in technical papers and
`reports, there is as yet no comprehensive and integrated textbook or refer-
`ence for students. Furthermore, practicing engineers also need a systemati-
`cally integrated reference to understand the essentials of this new
`technology. This book aims to fill this gap.
`The book deals with the fundamentals, theory, and design of conventional
`cars with internal combustion engines (ICEs), electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid
`electric vehicles (HEVs), and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). It comprehensively
`presents vehicle performance, configuration, control strategy, design
`methodology, modeling, and simulation for different conventional and mod-
`ern vehicles based on mathematical equations.
`This book includes vehicle system analysis, ICE-based drive trains, EV
`design, HEV configurations, electric propulsion systems, series/parallel/mild
`hybrid electric drive train design methodologies, energy storage systems,
`regenerative braking, fuel cells and their applications in vehicles, and fuel
`cell hybrid electric drive train design. It emphasizes the overall drive train
`system and not just specific components. The design methodology is
`described by step-by-step mathematical equations. Furthermore, in explaining
`the design methodology of each drive train, design examples are presented
`with simulation results.
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`This book consists of 13 chapters. In Chapter 1, the social and environ-
`mental import of modern transportation is discussed. This mainly includes
`air pollution, global warming, and petroleum resource depletion associated
`with the development of modern transportation. In this chapter, the impact
`of future vehicle technologies on the oil supplies is analyzed. The results are
`helpful for the future development strategy of the next-generation vehicles.
`In addition, the development history of EV, HEV, and FCV is briefly
`reviewed.
`In Chapter 2, the basic understanding of vehicle performance, power
`source characteristics, transmission characteristics, and equations used to
`describe vehicle performance are provided. The main purpose of this chap-
`ter is to provide the basic knowledge that is necessary for understanding
`vehicular drive train design.
`In Chapter 3, the major operating characteristics of different heat engines
`are introduced. As the primary power source, the engine is the most impor-
`tant subsystem in conventional and hybrid drive train systems. A complete
`understanding of the characteristics of an engine is necessary for the design
`and control of conventional cars and HEVs.
`In Chapter 4, EVs are introduced. This chapter mainly addresses the
`design of electric propulsion systems and energy storage devices, the design
`of traction motor and transmission, the prediction of vehicle performance,
`and simulation.
`In Chapter 5, the basic concept of hybrid traction is established. Various
`configurations of HEVs are discussed, such as series hybrid, parallel hybrid,
`torque-coupling and speed-coupling hybrids, and other configurations. The
`major operating characteristics of these configurations are presented.
`In Chapter 6, several electric propulsion systems are introduced, including
`DC, AC, permanent magnet brushless DC, and switched reluctance motor
`drives. Their basic construction, operating principles, and control and oper-
`ating characteristics are described from the traction application point of
`view.
`In Chapter 7, the design methodology of series hybrid electric drive trains
`is presented. This chapter focuses on the power design of engine and energy
`storage, design of traction motor, transmission characteristics, and control
`strategy. A design example is also provided.
`In Chapter 8, the design methodology of parallel hybrid electric drive
`trains is provided. This chapter includes driving pattern and mode analysis,
`control strategy, design of the major components (engine, energy storage,
`and transmission), and vehicle performance simulation.
`In Chapter 9, the design methodology of mild hybrid drive trains is intro-
`duced with two major configurations of parallel torque coupling and
`series–parallel, torque–speed coupling. This chapter focuses on operation
`analysis, control development, and simulation.
`In Chapter 10, different energy storage technologies are introduced
`including batteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels. The discussion focuses
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`on power and energy capacities. The concept of hybrid energy storage is also
`introduced in this chapter.
`In Chapter 11, vehicular regenerative braking is introduced. In this chap-
`ter, different controls of regenerative braking are analyzed, including brak-
`ing force distribution on the front and rear wheels, amount of braking
`energy in various driving cycles, and the amount of energy that can be
`recovered by regenerative braking.
`In Chapter 12, different fuel cell systems are described, mainly focusing on
`their operation principles and characteristics, technologies, and fuel sup-
`plies. Vehicular applications of fuel cells are also explained.
`In Chapter 13, the systematic design of fuel cell hybrid drive trains is
`introduced. First, the concept of fuel cell hybrid vehicles is established. Then,
`its operating principles and control of the drive train are analyzed. Lastly,
`the design methodology is described, focusing on the power design of the
`fuel cell system, electric propulsion, and the energy storage system. A design
`example and its corresponding simulation verification are also provided.
`The material in this book is recommended for a graduate or senior-level
`undergraduate course. Depending on the background of the students in dif-
`ferent disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering, course
`instructors have the flexibility to choose the material or skip the introductory
`sections/chapters from the book for their lectures. This text has been taught
`at Texas A&M University as a graduate-level course. An earlier version of
`this text has been revised several times based on the comments and feedback
`received from the students in this course. We are grateful to our students for
`their help.
`This book is also an in-depth source and a comprehensive reference in
`modern automotive systems for engineers, practitioners, graduate and sen-
`ior undergraduate students, researchers, and managers who are working in
`automotive-related industries, government, and academia.
`In addition to the work by others, many of the technologies and advances
`presented in this book are the collection of many years of research and
`development by the authors and other members of the Advanced Vehicle
`Systems Research Program at Texas A&M University. We are grateful to all
`members of the Advanced Vehicle Systems Research group as well as the
`Power Electronics and Motor Drives group, especially Dr. Hyung-Woo Lee
`and Mr. Peymen Asadi, who made great contributions to the brushless DC
`and switched reluctance motor drive sections, respectively. Switched reluc-
`tance motor vibration, acoustic noise, and design sections draw heavily
`from the Ph.D. dissertation of Prof. Babak Fahimi, which is gratefully
`acknowledged. In addition, we would like to express our sincere gratitude
`to Prof. Hassan Moghbelli, who thoroughly reviewed the earlier version of
`the manuscript and provided his valuable suggestions to improve the qual-
`ity of the book.
`We would also like to express our sincere thanks to Mr. Glenn C. Krell,
`whose proofreading and corrections have improved this text. In addition,
`
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`we would like to acknowledge the efforts and assistance of the staff of CRC
`Press, especially Nora Konopka and Jeff Hall. Last but not least, we thank
`our families for their unconditional support and absolute understanding
`during the writing of this book.
`
`Mehrdad Ehsani
`Yimin Gao
`Sebastien E. Gay
`Ali Emadi
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`Biography
`
`Short Biography of the Principal Author, Prof. Mehrdad Ehsani
`
`Mehrdad (Mark) Ehsani received his B.S. and M.S.
`degrees from the University of Texas at Austin in 1973
`and 1974, respectively, and his Ph.D. degree from the
`University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1981, all in electrical
`engineering.
`From 1974 to 1977, he was with the Fusion Research
`Center, University of Texas, as a Research Engineer. From
`1977 to 1981, he was with Argonne National Laboratory,
`Argonne, Illinois, as a Resident Research Associate, while
`simultaneously doing his doctoral work at the University
`of Wisconsin-Madison in energy systems and control systems. Since 1981, he
`has been at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, where he is now a
`Professor of electrical engineering and Director of Texas Applied Power
`Electronics Center (TAPC). He is the author of over 200 publications in
`pulsed-power supplies, high-voltage engineering, power electronics and
`motor drives, and is the recipient of the Prize Paper Awards in Static Power
`Converters and motor drives at the IEEE-Industry Applications Society 1985,
`1987, and 1992 Annual Meetings, in addition to numerous other honors and
`recognitions. In 1984, he was named the Outstanding Young Engineer of the
`Year by the Brazos chapter of the Texas Society of Professional Engineers. In
`1992, he was named the Halliburton Professor in the College of Engineering
`at Texas A&M. In 1994, he was also named the Dresser Industries Professor
`in the same college. In 2001, he was selected for Ruth & William Neely/Dow
`Chemical Faculty Fellow of the College of Engineering for 2001 to 2002, for
`“contributions to the Engineering Program at Texas A&M, including class-
`room instruction, scholarly activities, and professional service.” He was also
`selected for the IEEE Vehicular Society 2001 Avant Garde Award for “contri-
`butions to the theory and design of hybrid electric vehicles.” He is the co-
`author of a book on converter circuits for superconductive magnetic energy
`storage and a contributor to an IEEE Guide for Self-Commutated Converters
`and other monographs. He has 13 granted or pending U.S. and EC patents.
`His current research work is in power electronics, motor drives, hybrid vehi-
`cles, and their control systems.
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`Dr. Ehsani has been a member of the IEEE Power Electronics Society
`(PELS) AdCom, past Chairman of the PELS Educational Affairs Committee,
`past Chairman of the IEEE-IAS Industrial Power Converter Committee, and
`past chairman of the IEEE Myron Zucker Student-Faculty Grant program.
`He was the General Chair of the IEEE Power Electronics Specialist
`Conference in 1990. He is the chairman of the IEEE VTS Vehicle Power and
`Propulsion and Convergence Fellowship Committees. In 2002, he was
`elected to the Board of Governors of VTS. He also serves on the editorial
`board of several technical journals and is the associate editor of IEEE
`Transactions on Industrial Electronics and IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
`Technology. He is a Fellow of IEEE, an IEEE Industrial Electronics Society
`and Vehicular Technology Society Distinguished Speaker, and an IEEE
`Industry Applications Society and Power Engineering Society
`Distinguished Lecturer. He is also a registered professional engineer in the
`State of Texas.
`
`Short Biography of Dr. Yimin Gao
`
`Yimin Gao received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in
`mechanical engineering (major in development, design,
`and manufacturing of automotive systems) in 1982, 1986,
`and 1991, respectively, all from Jilin University of
`Technology, Changchun, Jilin, China. From 1982 to 1983,
`he worked as a vehicle design engineer in DongFeng
`Motor Company, Shiyan, Hubei, China. He finished a lay-
`out design of a 5 ton truck (EQ144) and participated in
`prototyping and testing. From 1983 to 1986, he was a graduate student in the
`Automotive Engineering College of Jilin University of Technology,
`Changchun, Jilin, China. His working field was improvement of vehicle fuel
`economy by optimal matching of engine and transmission.
`
`From 1987 to 1992, he was a Ph.D. student in the Automotive Engineering
`College of Jilin University of Technology, Changchun, Jilin, China. In this
`period, he worked on the research and development of legged vehicles, which
`can potentially operate in harsh environments where mobility is difficult for
`wheeled vehicles. From 1991 to 1995, he was an associate professor and auto-
`motive design engineer in the Automotive Engineering College of Jilin
`University of Technology. In this period, he taught undergraduate students
`the course of Automotive Theory and Design (several rounds) and graduate
`students the course of Automotive Experiment Technique (two rounds).
`Meanwhile, he also conducted vehicle performance, chassis, and components
`analysis, and conducted automotive design including chassis design, power
`train design, suspension design, steering system design, and brake design.
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`He joined the Advanced Vehicle Systems Research Program at Texas
`A&M University in 1995 as a research associate. Since then, he has been
`working in this program on the research and development of electric and
`hybrid electric vehicles. His research areas are mainly the fundamentals,
`architecture, control, modeling, and design of electric and hybrid electric
`drive trains, and major components. He is a member of SAE.
`
`Short Biography of Sebastien E. Gay
`
`Sebastien E. Gay received his M.S. in electrical engineer-
`ing from Texas A&M University in 2001. Before this, he
`obtained his “Diplôme d’Ingénieur” from the “Institut
`National Polytechnique de Grenoble,” (France) in 2000,
`and bachelor’s degrees in mechanical and electrical engi-
`neering from the “Institut Universitaire de Technologie,”
`Grenoble, (France) in 1996 and 1997, respectively. He is
`currently working toward his Ph.D., specializing in eddy
`current brakes. His research interests include hybrid electric and electric
`road and rail vehicles, vehicle systems advanced components, fuel cells, and
`oscillating electric machines. He is the co-author of a book on DSP-based
`control of electromechanical motion devices and two invention disclosures
`including one that received a “Spirit of Innovation Award” in May 2003 from
`the Texas A&M University Technology Licensing Office.
`
`Short Biography of Dr. Ali Emadi
`
`Ali Emadi received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in electrical
`engineering with highest distinction from the Sharif
`University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. He also received
`his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering specializing in
`power electronics and motor drives from Texas A&M
`University, College Station, TX, where he was awarded
`the Electric Power and Power Electronics Institute
`(EPPEI) fellowship for his graduate studies. In 1997, he was a lecturer at the
`Electrical Engineering Department of Sharif University of Technology. Dr.
`Emadi joined the Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE) Department of
`the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) in August 2000.
`
`Dr. Emadi is the director of Grainger Power Electronics and Motor Drives
`Laboratories at IIT, where he has established research and teaching laboratories
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`as well as courses in power electronics, motor drives, and vehicular power sys-
`tems. He is also the co-founder and co-director of the IIT Consortium on
`Advanced Automotive Systems (ICAAS). His main research interests include
`modeling, analysis, design, and control of power electronic converters/systems
`and motor drives. His areas of interest also include integrated converters,
`vehicular power systems, and hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles.
`Dr. Emadi has been named the Eta Kappa Nu Outstanding Young
`Electrical Engineer for 2003 by virtue of his outstanding contributions to
`hybrid electric vehicle conversion, for excellence in teaching, and for his
`involvement in student activities by the Eta Kappa Nu Association, the
`Electrical Engineering Honor Society. He is the recipient of the 2002
`University Excellence in Teaching Award from IIT as well as the 2004 Sigma
`Xi/IIT Award for Excellence in University Research. He directed a team of
`students to design and build a novel low-cost brushless DC motor drive for
`residential applications, which won the First Place Overall Award of the 2003
`IEEE/DOE/DOD International Future Energy Challenge for Motor
`Competition. He is an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Power
`Electronics, an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
`and a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Electric Power
`Components and Systems. Dr. Emadi is the principal author of over 120 jour-
`nal and conference papers as well as three books including Vehicular Electric
`Power Systems: Land, Sea, Air, and Space Vehicles (New York: Marcel Dekker,
`2003), Energy Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Applications (New York:
`Marcel Dekker, 2004), and Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Active Filters
`(Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2004). Dr. Emadi is also the editor of the Handbook
`of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives (New York: Marcel Dekker,
`2005). He is a senior member of IEEE and a member of SAE. He is also listed
`in the International Who’s Who of Professionals and Who’s Who in
`Engineering Academia.
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`Contents
`
`1. Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation ..............1
`1.1 Air Pollution ............................................................................................2
`1.1.1 Nitrogen Oxides ..........................................................................2
`1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide ........................................................................3
`1.1.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons ..........................................................3
`1.1.4 Other Pollutants ..........................................................................3
`1.2 Global Warming ......................................................................................4
`1.3 Petroleum Resources ..............................................................................5
`1.4 Induced Costs ..........................................................................................7
`1.5 Importance of Different Transportation Development
`Strategies to Future Oil Supply ............................................................9
`1.6 History of Electric Vehicles ..................................................................13
`1.7 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicles ....................................................15
`1.8 History of Fuel Cell Vehicles ..............................................................17
`References........................................................................................................19
`
`2. Vehicle Fundamentals....................................................................................21
`2.1 General Description of Vehicle Movement ......................................22
`2.2 Vehicle Resistance ................................................................................23
`2.2.1 Rolling Resistance ....................................................................23
`2.2.2 Aerodynamic Drag ..................................................................25
`2.2.3 Grading Resistance ..................................................................26
`2.3 Dynamic Equation ................................................................................27
`2.4 Tire–Ground Adhesion and Maximum Tractive Effort ..................29
`2.5 Power Train Tractive Effort and Vehicle Speed ..............................31
`2.6 Vehicle Power Plant and Transmission Characteristics ..................33
`2.6.1 Power Plant Characteristics ....................................................34
`2.6.2 Transmission Characteristics ..................................................36
`2.6.2.1 Gear Transmission ....................................................37
`2.6.2.2 Hydrodynamic Transmission ..................................39
`2.6.2.3 Continuously Variable Transmission ......................43
`2.7 Vehicle Performance ............................................................................44
`2.7.1 Maximum Speed of a Vehicle ................................................45
`2.7.2 Gradeability ..............................................................................46
`2.7.3 Acceleration Performance ......................................................46
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`2.8 Operating Fuel Economy ....................................................................49
`2.8.1 Fuel Economy Characteristics of Internal
`Combustion Engines ........................................................................49
`2.8.2 Calculation of Vehicle Fuel Economy ....................................50
`2.8.3 Basic Techniques to Improve Vehicle Fuel Economy ..........52
`2.9 Braking Performance ..........................................................................54
`2.9.1 Braking Force ............................................................................54
`2.9.2 Braking Distribution on Front and Rear Axles ....................55
`References ......................................................................................................60
`
`3. Internal Combustion Engines ......................................................................61
`3.1 4S, Spark-Ignited IC Engines ..............................................................62
`3.1.1 Operating Principles..................................................................62
`3.1.2 Operation Parameters ..............................................................64
`3.1.2.1 Rating Values of Engines ..........................................64
`3.1.2.2
`Indicated Work per Cycles and Mean Effective
`Pressure ........................................................................64
`3.1.2.3 Mechanical Efficiency ................................................66
`3.1.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency ............67
`3.1.2.5 Specific Emissions ......................................................68
`3.1.2.6 Fuel/Air and Air/Fuel Ratio......................................68
`3.1.2.7 Volumetric Efficiency ................................................69
`3.1.3 Relationships between Operation and Performance
`Parameters ................................................................................69
`3.1.4 Engine Operation Characteristics............................................70
`3.1.4.1 Engine Performance Parameters ..............................70
`3.1.4.2
`Indicated and Brake Power and Torque ................71
`3.1.4.3 Fuel Consumption Characteristics ..........................72
`3.1.5 Operating Variables Affecting SI Engine Performance,
`Efficiency, and Emissions Characteristics ..............................74
`3.1.5.1 Spark Timing ..............................................................74
`3.1.5.2 Fuel/Air Equivalent Ratio ........................................74
`3.1.6 Emission Control ......................................................................77
`3.1.7 Basic Technique to Improve Performance, Efficiency, and
`Emission Characteristics ..........................................................78
`3.2 4S, Compression-Ignition IC Engines ................................................81
`3.3 Two-Stroke Engines ..............................................................................82
`3.4 Wankel Rotary Engines ........................................................................86
`3.5 Stirling Engines......................................................................................89
`3.6 Gas Turbine Engines ............................................................................94
`3.7 Quasi-Isothermal Brayton Cycle Engines..........................................97
`References........................................................................................................98
`
`4. Electric Vehicles ..............................................................................................99
`4.1 Configurations of Electric Vehicles ....................................................99
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`4.2 Performance of Electric Vehicles ......................................................102
`4.2.1 Traction Motor Characteristics ..............................................103
`4.2.2 Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement ..................104
`4.2.3 Vehicle Performance................................................................105
`4.3 Tractive Effort in Normal Driving ....................................................109
`4.4 Energy Consumption ..........................................................................114
`References ....................................................................................................116
`
`5. Hybrid Electric Vehicles ..............................................................................117
`5.1 Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains ........................................118
`5.2 Architectures of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains ................................120
`5.2.1 Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains ......................................121
`5.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains....................................123
`5.2.2.1 Torque-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric
`Drive Trains ..............................................................124
`5.2.2.2 Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric
`Drive Trains ..............................................................130
`5.2.2.3 Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling
`Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains ....................133
`References......................................................................................................136
`
`6. Electric Propulsion Systems ......................................................................137
`6.1 DC Motor Drives ................................................................................142
`6.1.1 Principle of Operation and Performance ............................142
`6.1.2 Combined Armature Voltage and Field Control ................146
`6.1.3 Chopper Control of DC Motors ............................................146
`6.1.4 Multiquadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor
`Drives ........................................................................................151
`6.1.4.1 Two-Quadrant Control of Forward Motoring
`and Regenerative Braking ......................................151
`6.1.4.1.1 Single Chopper with a Reverse
`Switch ......................................................151
`6.1.4.1.2 Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper..........152
`6.1.4.2 Four-Quadrant Operation ......................................154
`6.2 Induction Motor Drives......................................................................155
`6.2.1 Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors ................156
`6.2.2 Steady-State Performance ......................................................159
`6.2.3 Constant Volt/Hertz Control ................................................162
`6.2.4 Power Electronic Control........................................................163
`6.2.5 Field Orientation Control ......................................................166
`6.2.5.1 Field Orientation Principles....................................166
`6.2.5.2 Control........................................................................173
`6.2.5.3 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme ............175
`6.2.5.4
`Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme ..............178
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`6.2.6 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC ..........................................180
`6.2.6.1 Voltage Control in Voltage Source Inverter ..........182
`6.2.6.2 Current Control in Voltage Source Inverter ........185
`6.3 Permanent Magnetic Brush-Less DC Motor Drives ......................187
`6.3.1 Basic Principles of BLDC Motor Drives ..............................190
`6.3.2 BLDC Machine Construction and Classification ................190
`6.3.3 Properties of PM Materials ....................................................193
`6.3.3.1 Alnico ..................................................