DOE/EE—0059
`
`ELECTRIC AND
`
`HYBRID VEHICLES
`
`PROGRAM
`
`18th ANNUAL REPORT TO
`
`CONGRESS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1994
`
`
`
`April 1995
`
`US. Department of Energy
`Assistant Secretary, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
`Office of Transportation Technologies
`Washington, DC 20585
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`PREFACE
`
`This eighteenth annual report serves to inform the United States Congress of
`the progress in Fiscal Year 1994 and the plans of the Department of Energy Electric
`and Hybrid Vehicles Research and Development Program. This document complies
`with the reporting requirements established under Section 14 of the Electric and
`Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1976, Public Law
`94-413, as amended, 15 U.S.C. §2513.
`It also satisfies the reporting requirements of
`Section 615 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, Public Law 102-486, 42 U.S.C.
`§13285.
`In addition, this report is intended to serve as a means of communication
`from the Department to all the public and private sector participants involved in
`making the program a success, and other interested parties.
`
`The Department remains focused on the technologies that are critical to making
`electric and hybrid vehicles commercially viable and competitive with current
`production gasoline-fueled vehicles in performance, reliability, and affordability.
`During Fiscal Year 1994, significant progress was made toward fulfilling the intent of
`Congress. The Department and the United States Advanced Battery Consortium (a
`partnership of the three major domestic automobile manufacturers) continued to work
`together and to focus the efforts of battery developers on the battery technologies that
`are most likely to be commercialized in the near term. Progress was made in industry
`cost-shared contracts toward demonstrating the technical feasibility of fuel cells for
`passenger bus and light duty vehicle applications. Two industry teams which will
`develop hybrid vehicle propulsion technologies have been selected through competitive
`procurement and have initiated work, in Fiscal Year 1994.
`In addition, technical
`studies and program planning continue, as required by the Energy Policy Act of 1992,
`to achieve the goals of reducing the transportation sector dependence on imported oil,
`reducing the level of environmentally harmful emissions, and enhancing industrial
`productivity and competitiveness.
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`TABLE OF CONTENTS
`
`Preface
`
`1.0
`
`Introduction ............................................... 1-1
`
`2.0
`
`Fiscal Year 1994 Accomplishments ............................... 2-1
`
`3.0
`
`4.0
`
`5.0
`
`Battery Systems Research and Development ......................... 3-1
`3.1
`United States Advanced Battery Consortium .................... 3-1
`3.2
`Exploratory Technology Research ........................... 3-2
`3.3
`Ultracapacitors ........................................ 3-5
`
`Fuel Cell Systems Research and Development ....................... 4-1
`4.1
`Light-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems ....................... 4-1
`4.2
`Heavy-Duty Vehicle Propulsion Systems ...................... 4-3
`4.3
`Research and Development ................................ 4-4
`4.4
`Exploratory Technology Development ........................ 4-5
`4.5
`Vehicle Systems Analyses ................................ 4-7
`
`Propulsion Systems Research and Development ...................... 5-1
`5.1
`Hybrid Propulsion Systems Program ......................... 5-1
`5.2
`Modular Electric Vehicle Program ........................... 5-3
`5.3
`Site Operator Program ................................... 5-4
`5.4
`Engineering Evaluation and Testing .......................... 5-8
`5.5
`Student Competitions .................................... 5-12
`
`6.0
`
`Other Activities ............................................. 6-1
`
`6.1
`
`6.2
`6.3
`6.4
`
`6.5
`6.6
`6.7
`
`The Energy Policy Act of 1992 and the Electric and Hybrid
`Vehicles Program ...................................... 6-1
`Interagency Coordination ................................. 6-2
`Database Development ................................... 6-3
`Electric Vehicle Readiness ................................ 6-4
`
`Environmental, Health, and Safety Studies ..................... 6-6
`Energy Storage for Hybrid/Electric Vehicles .................... 6-7
`Supporting Analyses and Assessments of Transportation
`Fuel Cells .......................................... 6-8
`
`7.0
`
`Incentives ................................................. 7-1
`
`8.0
`
`Use of Foreign Components .................................... 8-1
`
`9.0
`
`Recommendations for Initiatives ................................. 9-1
`
`10.0
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`Fiscal Year 1994 Publications .................................. 10-1
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`1.0
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`INTRODUCTION
`
`The transportation sector is the single largest user of petroleum in the United States;
`not only did it account for approximately 66 percent of all petroleum used last year, but more
`significantly, it used about 53 percent more oil than the country produced. The transportation
`sector is also a major contributor to air pollution. Extensive use of electric, hybrid, and fuel
`cell vehicles could lead to an overall reduction in petroleum fuels consumption for
`transportation and a corresponding reduction in on-road emission of environmentally harmful
`exhaust gases.
`
`The Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of
`1976 authorizes the Department of Energy to, among other things, "encourage and support
`accelerated research into, and development of electric and hybrid vehicle technologies." 15
`U.S.C. §2501(b)(1). The Department established the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program to
`undertake, in cooperation with industry, research, development, testing, and evaluation
`activities to develop the technologies that would lead to the production and introduction of
`electric and hybrid vehicles in the Nation’s transportation fleet. The Program is managed by
`the Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division within the Office of Propulsion Systems.
`In
`Fiscal Year 1994, Congress provided an appropriation of $74 million for the Program.
`
`The current program structure and principal responsibilities of the organizational units
`are shown in Figure 1-1. The participants in electric and hybrid propulsion systems research
`and development, and their cost—sharing commitment, are listed in Table 1-1. Participants
`include major automotive companies, battery companies, component and propulsion system
`companies, universities, and electric vehicle users from the public and private sectors.
`
`In Fiscal Year 1994, the Program continued to emphasize battery, fuel cell, and
`propulsion systems development. The Program also supported testing and evaluation of
`vehicles and components in laboratory and fleet operations. The battery program concentrated
`on technologies that could satisfy the mid- and long-term goals of the automobile
`manufacturers as determined by the United States Advanced Battery Consortium. Two major
`cost-shared contracts were placed with automotive industry teams for the development of
`hybrid propulsion systems that would double the fuel efficiency of conventional vehicles and
`satisfy the Environmental Protection Agency Tier II emissions standard.
`
`The Energy Policy Act of 1992, in Title XX, Subtitle A, recognizes the role of electric
`vehicles in reducing the nation’s dependence on imported oil. Section 2025 authorizes an
`expanded program of research and development of electric motor vehicles and associated
`equipment. Subtitle A of Title VI provides for a commercial demonstration program in
`electric vehicles.
`In Fiscal Year 1994, the comprehensive five—year program plan developed
`for carrying out the purposes of Section 2025 was completed.
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`This Annual Report describes the progress made in developing electric and hybrid
`vehicle technologies. The report provides a summary of Fiscal Year 1994 accomplishments,
`followed by detailed descriptions of program activities in advanced battery, fuel cell, and
`propulsion systems development. The results of testing and evaluation of new technology in
`fleet site operations and in laboratories are provided.
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`Assistant Secretary for Energy
`Efficiency and Renewable Energy
`
`Deputy Assistant Secretary for
`Transportation Technologies
`
`Office of Propulsion Systems
`
`Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division
`
`Advanced Battery Systems
`
`Fuel Cell Systems
`
`USABC
`Advanced Batteries
`
`Phosphoric Acid
`Proton Exchange Membrane
`
`T‘
`w
`
`Ultracapacitors
`Environment, Health, and Safety Assessments
`
`Reformer Development
`Environment. Health. and Safety Assessments
`
`
`
`Exploratory Technology
`
`Development
`Electrochemical Research
`Direct Oxidation Reformation
`
`Propulsion Systems
`Development
`
`Hybrid Propulsion Systems
`
`Modular Electric Vehicle Propulsion
`System
`Site Operations
`Testing and Evaluation
`Student Competition
`
`Idaho National
`Engineering
`Laboratory
`Vehicle System and
`Component Dynamometer
`Testing
`
`Instmmentation Support
`Advanced Powertrain
`Development
`Simulation and Modeling
`Site Operations
`Ultracapacitor Testing
`USABC CRADA
`
`National
`Renewable
`Energy
`Laboratory
`E
`,
`l
`nvrronmen ,
`Health, and Safety
`Assessments
`Hybrid Propulsion
`Systems (Midvvest
`Research Institute)
`USABC CRADA
`
`Field Centers and Offices
`
`Brookhaven
`National
`Laboratory
`Electmchemical
`Research
`
`Lawrence
`Berkeley
`Laboratory
`Technology Base
`Research
`Exploratory
`Technology
`Research
`USABC CRADA
`
`Sandia
`National
`Laboratory
`USABC CRADA
`
`Los Alamos
`National
`Laboratory
`Fuel Cell
`Research
`PEM Fuel Cell
`Ultracapacitor
`Development
`Direct Oxidation
`0‘ Methanol
`
`Argonne
`National
`Laboratory
`Fuel Cell/Battery
`Integration
`PEM FUGI Cell
`Phosphoric Acid
`Fuel Cell
`Reformer
`Development
`Engineering
`Qgglfiezeling
`USABC CRADA
`
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`Figure 1-1: Electric and Hybrid Propulsion Division Program Structure
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`Table 1-1. Major Participants in the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Program
`
`Participant
`
`Participant Cost Share
`of Contract,* percent
`
`Automotive Companies
`Ford Motor Company (Fuel Cell)
`General Motors/Allison (Fuel Cell)
`United States Advanced Battery Consortium
`General Motors (Hybrid)
`Ford Motor Company (Hybrid)
`
`Component and Propulsion System Companies
`H—Power
`A.D. Little
`
`Pentastar Electronics (Fuel Cell)
`
`Battery Companies
`(participating through the United States
`Advanced Battery Consortium)
`
`Universities
`
`Georgetown University
`
`Fleet Testing Site Operators 1’
`Arizona Public Service Company
`United States Navy
`Southern California Edison
`Los Angeles Dept. of Power and Water
`Kansas State University
`Orcas Power and Light Company
`Platte River Power Authority
`Pacific Gas and Electric Company
`Potomac Electric Power Company
`Public Service Gas and Electric Company
`Texas A&M University
`University of South Florida
`York Technical College
`
`20
`20
`50
`50
`50
`
`95
`100
`90
`100
`63
`50
`86
`96
`79
`97
`98
`95
`94
`
`site operators
`
`The variance in the cost-share percentage by site operators is due to the different activities and contractual arrangements with the
`
`All contracted efforts are with fee waiver.
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`2.0 FISCAL YEAR 1994 ACCOMPLISHNIENTS
`
`Significant Fiscal Year 1994 accomplishments of the Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
`Program include the following:
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`Yardney Technical Products was awarded a new contract by the United States
`Advanced Battery Consortium for the development of low-cost nickel electrode
`technology. Low-cost electrode technology development is important for meeting the
`cost goals in the nickel/metal hydride battery programs
`
`The Consortium updated and issued a revised manual for advanced battery test
`procedures covering almost all aspects of electric vehicle battery testing, including
`improved tests for maximum power, and battery operation under extremes of
`temperature, shock, and vibration. Over 50 advanced batteries were delivered to the
`Consortium and subsequently tested. The Consortium’s independent evaluation of
`contractor deliverables assures that milestones in the program are met.
`
`Maxwell Laboratories, under contract to the Department, developed the first
`ultracapacitor to demonstrate specific energy of greater than 5 watt-hours per
`kilogram at a power level of 500 watts. This goal was set by the Department in 1991
`as the minimum performance level to consider ultracapacitor technology for use in
`electric vehicles.
`
`The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory developed a comprehensive set of test
`procedures for evaluating ultracapacitors for electric and hybrid vehicles. These tests
`will allow progress in ultracapacitor technology to be objectively measured.
`
`Under the Exploratory Battery Technology Program in support of the Consortium,
`PolyPlus Battery Company (in a subcontract from Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory) has
`successfully demonstrated the high performance potential of sodium/polymer/
`polydisulfide cell technology.
`If long cycle lifetimes can be achieved with these cells,
`they could offer a lower-cost alternative to lithium/polymer electrolyte cells.
`
`Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory has developed a new technique (known as Metal
`Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation) for implanting metals in nickel oxide electrodes.
`Initial results indicate that this process significantly improved the electrode capacity.
`This would lower the cost and improve the performance of all nickel battery
`technologies, including nickel/metal hydride.
`
`Los Alamos National Laboratory demonstrated that freeze-thaw cycling of proton
`exchange membrane fuel cells had no deleterious effect on performance. These results
`suggest that the direct application of a thin electrode to the membrane generates a
`bond which effectively prevents delamination under demanding changes in operating
`temperature. These results also suggest that fuel cell vehicles would be useable under
`a wide range of operating conditions, including extreme cold.
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`H-Power Corporation completed the fabrication of the first U.S.-built fuel cell powered
`bus. The 30-foot long, 25-passenger bus uses a SO-kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell
`to supply all of the vehicle’s energy needs, including wheelchair lifts and air
`conditioning. The fuel cell operates on methanol fuel and a fuel efficiency of over 40
`percent has been demonstrated. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide emissions levels
`are more than 30 times lower than the 1998 federal heavy-duty diesel emission
`standards, with virtually no hydrocarbon or particulate emissions.
`
`The General Motors Corporation completed a three-year, 20-percent cost-shared
`contract (Phase I) which successfully deve10ped and tested a 10-kilowatt methanol-
`fueled proton exchange membrane fuel cell system.
`In addition, a vehicle conceptual
`design study was completed, selecting a minivan for initial demonstration of
`performance comparable to the internal combustion engine, but with over twice the
`energy efficiency and nearly zero emissions. A 30-month Phase II follow-on contract
`was awarded to General Motors towards building and testing a complete 60-kilowatt
`laboratory-scale propulsion system.
`
`Two teams headed by Ford Motor Company and Pentastar Electronics, Inc. (a Chrysler
`company) were awarded 20-percent cost-shared contracts for 30 months to develop
`propulsion systems for light-duty passenger vehicles based on proton exchange
`membrane fuel cell technology fueled directly by hydrogen carried on board the
`vehicle. Development of conceptual vehicle designs and hydrogen safety analyses are
`underway.
`
`Arthur D. Little, Inc. continued Phase 11 activities in a 30-month contract (17—percent
`cost-shared, also co-funded by the State of Illinois) to develop a prototype partial
`oxidation ethanol fuel processor. A bench-scale (approximately 7 kilowatt, equivalent)
`partial oxidation reformer was built and scaled up to 25 kilowatts.
`
`Argonne National Laboratory analyzed proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems
`for a variety of fuel, fuel storage, and fuel processing options. The highest full load
`system efficiencies (over 52 percent) were obtained for compressed hydrogen and from
`hydrogen stored in iron-titanium hydride systems. Methanol—fueled system efficiencies
`were 38 to 45 percent, while natural gas-fueled system efficiencies were about 41
`percent.
`
`Argonne National Laboratory successfully tested a bench-scale methanol partial
`oxidation reformer designed for a 10-kilowatt fuel cell system. The reformer has
`demonstrated rapid cold start capability with liquid feed, high hydrogen content in
`product gas, and very good load-following capability. This reformer technology would
`allow fuel cell powered vehicles to operate from methanol, a liquid fuel with easy
`handling requirements.
`
`Two industry lead teams, headed by General Motors Corporation and the Ford Motor
`Company, were awarded five-year, SO-percent cost-shared contracts to design,
`construct, and test improved hybrid propulsion systems. The General Motors team
`evaluated several hybrid propulsion system technologies and has built a testbed vehicle
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`for future use as a rolling laboratory to test various components of the hybrid
`powertrain as they become available. This testbed vehicle will facilitate the evaluation
`of various component combinations and control strategy alternatives. After weighing
`all the analysis during Phase I of the program, it was decided that the team will pursue
`a series configuration electric hybrid.
`
`The Ford hybrid propulsion team initiated the Systems Study/ Definition Phase to
`define component characteristics for subsequent trade-off studies and developed an
`integrated hybrid propulsion simulation computer model. This model simulates the
`function of the major hybrid components during operation on various vehicle driving
`cycles and will facilitate the evaluation of various hybrid configurations, component
`combinations, and control strategies prior to large investments in hardware fabrication.
`
`A Cooperative Research and Development Agreement entitled "Electromechanical
`Batteries for Hybrid Vehicles" was signed between General Motors and Lawrence
`Livermore National Laboratory under the General Motors Hybrid Propulsion Systems
`Program. The effort will involve the design, fabrication, integration, and test of
`electromechanical batteries (flywheels) for hybrid vehicles.
`
`Phase II of the Modular Electric Vehicle Program was completed with the
`development of a modular 75-horsepower electric drivetrain that was incorporated into
`a testbed electric van. The vehicle, known as the Ford Ecostar, is being field tested at
`a number of sites across the country. This is the first time that Department-developed
`propulsion technology has been incorporated in a major automaker’s prototype.
`
`The Site Operators procured 42 advanced design electric pickup trucks from Spartan
`Motors (with General Electric drivetrain) and US. Electricar (with Hughes Power
`Systems drivetrain) under cost-shared cooperative agreements with the Department.
`These vehicles will be field tested in Fiscal Year 1995 as part of the Site Operators
`Program.
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`The 1994 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge student engineering competition, co-
`sponsored by the Department and others, attracted over 800 student participants from
`30 colleges and universities. The vehicles competed in three categories: Saturn
`vehicles converted to hybrids, Ford Escort conversions, and hybrids built from the
`ground up. The Challenge also contributed data for the development of a standard test
`procedure for hybrid vehicles.
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`The California Air Resource Board and the Department have entered into a
`Memorandum of Understanding for testing electric vehicles at the Idaho National
`Engineering Laboratory. The data collection will serve to further the objective of the
`fixed percentage of zero-emission highway vehicles that California law mandates (with
`a 1998 deadline).
`
`The Department initiated activities with a confederation of electric utilities, known as
`"EV America" to critically examine the status of available electric vehicles for
`potential use in broader demonstrations of this technology.
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`The Department continued to participate in the development of an infrastructure for
`electric vehicles through the Infrastructure Working Council and appropriate
`committees. The Council coordinates the activities of the electric utility industry, the
`automobile industry, and equipment suppliers towards development of common
`standards.
`
`The Department signed on June 30, 1994, a Memorandum of Understanding with the
`Advanced Research Projects Agency concerning the coordination of activities in three
`program areas, namely: Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research and Development; Fuel
`Cell Vehicle Research and Development; and Electric and Hybrid Vehicle
`Deployment. The goal of the Memorandum is to avoid duplication of efforts and
`ensure the efficient use of government resources between the agencies. Detailed
`agreements will be developed in Fiscal Year 1995 to implement the Memorandum.
`
`The Notice of Proposed Rulemaking on Equivalent Petroleum-Based Fuel Economy
`for electric vehicles was published in the Federal Register in February 1994. The
`rulemaking delineates the procedure for calculating the electric vehicles’ equivalent
`miles per gallon for application to manufacturer’s corporate average fuel economy.
`Appropriate comments from the public hearing are being incorporated into the final
`rule which will be released during Fiscal Year 1995. This rulemaking provides an
`increased incentive to vehicle manufacturers to produce electric vehicles.
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`3.0 BATTERY SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND DEVELOPIVIENT
`
`3.1 United States Advanced Battery Consortium
`
`During Fiscal Year 1994, the United States Advanced Battery Consortium and the
`Department continued to work together to achieve the technical and cost objectives required
`for mid- and long-term battery systems. More specifically, the purpose of this cooperation is
`to develop for commercialization advanced battery systems that will provide increased range
`and improved performance for electric vehicles in the latter part of the 1990s.
`
`In the spring of 1994, the Consortium participated in workshops and public hearings
`held by the California Air Resources Board concerning the technical status of advanced
`batteries for electric vehicles. The Consortium outlined the development process it was using
`and its forecast of the availability of advanced batteries for the mid term.
`
`In particular, discussions focused on the status of the nickel-metal hydride batteries
`which are being developed under contract to the Consortium by Ovonic Battery Company and
`SAFT America. Cells, modules, and battery packs are being tested in laboratories and in
`vehicles. While each contract is at a different stage of development, neither company has
`fully met the mid—term criteria.
`
`The Ovonic contract has begun the third phase of a four-phase effort. Battery
`performance in the first and second phases improved consistently and all deliverables were
`met on or ahead of schedule. Test results to date at Argonne National Laboratory have
`shown that this technology holds promise of meeting the mid—term performance criteria.
`Phase 2 modules are now under test at Argonne, including life and temperature testing to
`determine thermal management requirements. While these modules continue to cycle on the
`rigorous Dynamic Stress Test, the mid-term criterion for cycle life (600 cycles) has not yet
`been reached. The criteria for success are to maintain both energy and peak pulse power
`above 80-percent of their initial ratings (30-second pulse at two-thirds open circuit voltage
`and 80-percent depth-of-discharge). Based on Ovonic’s technical progress, the consortium
`agreed to install full—size Phase 2 packs in vehicles prior to completion of Phase 3. These
`have now been delivered and integrated into vehicles.
`
`Projections of battery selling price made by Ovonic, and independently by the
`Consortium, are currently in excess of the United States Advanced Battery Consortium mid-
`term goal of $150 per kilowatt-hour. Ovonic has proposed additional development aimed at
`reducing materials and manufacturing costs to meet this goal. Overall, it will take more than
`two additional years before final verification testing can be started for this improved
`technology. Subsequent verification of cycle life will take about one additional year. This
`could result in eventual achievement of the price goal, with specific energy levels well above
`the mid-term criteria.
`
`In parallel with this effort, General Motors recently announced an agreement with
`Ovonic to further develop, manufacture and commercialize the Ovonic nickel-metal hydride
`batteries for electric vehicles. The impact this agreement will have on the timing for volume
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`production and meeting the cost goal is not known at this time.
`
`SAFT is also making excellent progress in their nickel-metal hydride development
`program. The program is structured on a number of hardware deliverable to measure progress
`against defined performance goals. Although the initial and interim goals are below mid-term
`targets, they plan to meet the mid-term goals in the final deliverables. The first SAFT 12-volt
`modules were delivered to the Sandia National Laboratories in July 1993. Performance and
`cycling tests are in progress using the Dynamic Stress Test profile but have not yet achieved
`the 600 cycles required by the Consortium. The second hardware deliverables were provided
`on schedule in January 1994. By the end of 1994, four 40-kilowatt-hours battery packs will
`have been delivered. These packs are expected to meet at least some of the mid-term goals.
`The final contract deliverables are scheduled for the end of 1995 and the first quarter of 1996.
`Testing of these full-sized packs in the laboratory and in vehicles will require up to 12
`additional months to verify achievement of the cycle life goal.
`
`Throughout the development, efforts will continue towards achieving the mid-term
`battery cost goal. Even if successful, a decision to commercialize this technology could not
`be made before mid-1997. Thereafter, production facilities would have to be set up and
`commissioned before significant production rates could be achieved.
`
`The Battery Test Procedures Committee of the Consortium continued its work in test
`development, data reporting, and advanced planning. A revised version of the Electric
`Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual, containing updated versions of test procedures and
`data reporting formats, was published. First drafts of a Glossary of Terms and Detailed Test
`Procedures were completed and will be included in the next revision of the Battery Test
`Procedures Manual. All Consortium deliverable schedules, data distribution, and testing costs
`were planned and monitored.
`Initial drafts of the In-Vehicle Test Plan and Battery Safety
`Testing studies were completed.
`
`Work continued in Fiscal Year 1994 under Cooperative Research and Development
`Agreements between the Consortium and national laboratories including Argonne National
`Laboratory,
`Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National
`Laboratory, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratory.
`
`3.2 Exploratory Technology Research
`
`In Fiscal Year 1994, exploratory research activities managed by Lawrence Berkeley
`National Laboratory focused on identifying new rechargeable battery systems with higher
`performance and lower cycle-life costs than those now available, and conducting critical
`supporting and materials research for the batteries now under development by the US.
`Advanced Battery Consortium.
`
`Work on rechargeable lithium/polymer electrolyte batteries addressed charge and
`discharge processes, and synthesis of polymer electrolyte materials. At Lawrence Berkeley,
`researchers have identified the important physical processes taking place in the charge and
`discharge of lithium/polymer electrolyte cells and have developed a mathematical model to
`understand the dynamic changes that occur. This model has been extended to examine the
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`behavior of the “Rocking Chair” configuration, which is based upon two electrodes which
`store lithium at different potentials. A thermal model has been developed which predicts the
`amount of heat that is generated during cycling of a lithium/polymer battery. The results
`demonstrate that thermal management may not be a serious problem for these batteries under
`low discharge rates. However, under high discharge rates, the temperature of a battery may
`increase significantly if the thickness of a battery exceeds a certain value.
`
`At Case Western Reserve University, a project is underway to develop novel materials
`for polymer electrolytes. Researchers are attempting to synthesize sulfonated and
`phosphonated polybenzimidazole polymers. Northwestern University is involved in two
`projects:
`(a) synthesizing polymer electrolytes based on aluminosilicate-polyether hybrid
`electrolytes with improved low-temperature performance; and (b) applying theoretical studies
`involving molecular dynamics and simulations to understand the conduction process in
`polymer electrolytes. A new hybrid polymer electrolyte (polyether-bound lithium
`aluminosilicate-polyether) has been synthesized and will be tested shortly. Theoretical models
`are being developed to determine the influence of different parameters on the transport of
`lithium in polymer electrolytes.
`
`The University of Dayton is conducting research to synthesize and characterize new
`polymer electrolytes that contain crown ethers which could have a fundamentally different
`mode of ion transport than those currently under investigation. The proposed systems are
`doped polymers with side chains that have crown ether groups which form a strong bond to
`lithium.
`It is hypothesized that these materials will create highly ordered structures, thereby
`forming paths through which ions can move easily. The synthesis of polymers involving a
`seven-step procedure has been initiated.
`
`Rutgers University is investigating methods to optimize the synthesis of polymer
`electrolytes by sol-gel processing of alkali silicate components. Various lithia-silicate
`compositions have been prepared which were found to have ionic conductivities over the
`range from room temperature to 400°C that show some promise for test in lithium batteries.
`
`Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory is also developing new electrochemical couples, and new
`versions of previously investigated couples, with the potential to meet or exceed the battery
`performance goals of the Consortium. These include the sodium/polymer and zinc/nickel oxide
`cells which could provide high performance at ambient or near—ambient temperatures.
`
`A sodium/polymer cell consists of electrodes made of pure sodium (for some studies, a
`sodium-lead alloy was substituted) and sodium cobalt oxide, and a polymer electrolyte.
`Studies are underway to find an alternative to the costly sodium cobalt oxide. The most
`suitable family of low-cost metal oxides is the manganese oxides. Tests in sodium/polymer
`cells indicate that this material can operate over an acceptable voltage range with good
`performance.
`In a separate study, Brookhaven National Laboratory observed that adding
`metal oxides to manganese oxides improved the performance of these electrodes.
`
`In their evaluation of the zinc/nickel oxide cell, researchers at Lawrence Berkeley found
`that the nickel oxide electrode limits the cell lifetime.
`It was previously believed that the
`reactions of zinc species with the nickel oxide electrode degrade its performance.
`In a
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`collaborative study, Brookhaven National Laboratory used advanced spectroscopic techniques
`to study nickel oxide electrodes that were cycled in zinc/nickel oxide cells at Lawrence
`Berkeley Laboratory. These measurements showed that a substantial amount of zinc is
`present in the nickel oxide electrodes, and that the zinc species were different in the
`electrodes obtained from three vendors. There was no evidence for reaction of cycled nickel
`oxide electrodes with zinc species. Lawrence Berkeley will transfer zinc/nickel oxide cell
`technology to the Energy Research Corporation under a Cooperative Research and
`Development Agreement.
`
`Other electrochemical cells were also investigated in Fiscal Year 1994. Oak Ridge
`National Lab