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`Preface
`
`We live in a world bathed in light. Light is one of the most familiar and essential things in
`our lives. For many thousands of years, the Sun was our only source of light. Eventually,
`the ability to create fire and its by-product, light, led to a profound change in the way
`humans managed their time. Today, there are many options for creating light. Our under-
`standing of light has spawned many applications of light. Light can be used in fibre
`communications; early applications included ship-to-ship communications using Morse
`code. Infrared remote controls for televisions demonstrated free-space optical communi-
`cations, using many of the same principles. Optical fibre has revolutionized the way we
`interact with the world. Fibre optics, as a waveguide technology, now provides an essential
`backbone for much of the world’s high-speed communication networks. Photo-dynamic
`therapies use light to treat cancers. Light is used to treat those with seasonal disorders.
`Lasers are now used in medical applications, such as re-shaping our corneas, cauterizing
`blood vessels and removing tattoos. Lasers are also used in industrial applications, such as
`cutting metal, welding and sensing. New imaging technology permits the creation of flat-
`panel displays, night vision devices and autonomous product inspection systems. With so
`many applications of light, the need for Photonics technology and innovation will most
`certainly grow in the future, as new applications emerge to light.
`A unique approach is taken in this book to present fibre optics and its applications in Photo-
`nics technology. This book covers the basic theoretical principles and industrial applications of
`Photonics technology, suitable for students, professionals and professors. Each chapter is
`presented in two parts: theoretical and practical. The theoretical part has adequate material
`to cover the whole aspect of the subject. In the experimental part, students will apply the
`learned theoretical concepts in simple and advanced experimental works. In this way, students
`will learn and gain practical hands-on experience in the fibre optics subjects. This will assist the
`students to apply the theoretical knowledge to real-world applications. The step-by-step
`approach and technical illustrations in this book will guide students through each experiment.
`The experimental work has more than one case in most of the chapters, and sometimes have
`sub-cases.
`This book is written in simple language, and gives adequate information and instruction to
`enable students to achieve maximum comprehension. An effort has been made to use the
`international system of units (SI) throughout the book. The organization of the chapters is
`designed to provide a solid foundation for today’s Photonics’ students, and to upgrade their
`knowledge. Universal tools, devices and equipment, which are used throughout the experi-
`ments, are available in any Photonics, Physics and material
`labs. This book abounds in
`theoretical and practical aids, and is an effective teaching tool, helpful to both professors
`and students. Simple and advanced subjects are presented by an expert author, and some
`new fibre optics subjects appear for the first time in this book.
`Care has been taken to label parts clearly, and to use colours in diagrams wherever it will aid
`understanding. Some figures are drawn in three dimensions, wherever applicable, for easy under-
`standing of the concepts. Colour pictures are used to clearly show parts in a device, system and
`experimental setup.
`The book is structured into 14 chapters, which are listed below:
`
`† Chapter 1 through Chapter 11 covers fibre optic cables, advanced fibre optic cables, light
`
`attenuation in optical components, fibre optic cable types and installations, fibre optic
`connectors, passive fibre optic devices, wavelength division multiplexer, optical ampli-
`fiers, optical receivers, opto-mechanical switches and optical fibre communications.
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`† Chapter 12 covers fibre optic lighting.
`† Chapter 13 covers fibre optics testing.
`† Chapter 14 covers laboratory safety.
`
`The book includes 325 figures, 56 tables and 38 experimental cases. The book was developed
`with generous input from members of the photonics industry, research scientists, and members from
`academia.
`
`Abdul Al-Azzawi
`Algonquin College
`Canada
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`q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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`Acknowledgments
`
`This book would not have been possible without the enthusiasm and teamwork of my colleagues
`and family support. In particular, the author would like to thank Mietek Slocinski for his support,
`time and energy in working long hours to set up the labs, taking pictures and fruitful discussion
`during the years to complete the book.
`The author would like to thank Steve Finnegan, Kathy Deugo and Nicole McGahey for their
`support and solving the difficulties.
`The author would like to thank his daughter Abeer and son Abaida for their help in reviewing the
`chapters and making drawings and figures.
`The author also extends his thanks to Eng. Monica Havelock for her contribution in working long
`hours in reviewing and editing the materials, and support.
`The author wishes to express his gratitude to his colleagues Prof. Devon Galway and Prof. Rao
`Kollipara for their comments and feedback in reviewing some materials in this book.
`The author wishes to thank Gergely Horvath for hard work in reviewing and proofreading most
`chapters in this book. The author likes to thank Madeleine Camm, Andrew Lynch and Nicolas Lea
`for reviewing a few chapters in this book.
`The author would like to extend his thanks to Dr Imad Hasan, Dr Wahab Almuhtadi, Dr Mostefa
`Mohamad, Eng. Nazar Rida and Eng. Mohamad Mohamad for reviewing and proposing the
`materials in this book.
`The following list shows the names of those who participated in writing the chapters:
`
`† Optical Receivers chapter is written by Dr Imad Hasan.
`† Optical Fibre Communications chapter is written by Dr Wahab Almuhtadi.
`† Fibre Optic Testing chapter is written by Eng. Valerie Dube
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`Author
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`Abdul Al-Azzawi, PhD, graduated from the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
`He has worked in the photonics manufacturing industry, research (NRC/Canmet), and teaching at
`Algonquin College, Ontario, Canada. While employed at NRC, he participated in studying energy
`saving in a residential building and developing the green building assessment programme. As a
`photonics engineer, he designed new production lines, modified products, developed manufacturing
`process, and designed new jigs.
`At Algonquin College, he has taught mechanical and photonics courses in the mechanical and
`photonics engineering programmes. He was a member of the founding team of the Photonics
`Engineering Programmes. He has published three books and many papers, and he has participated
`in many workshops and conferences around the world. He is the author of the book, Fibre Optics—
`Principles and Practices.
`He is the coordinator of the photonics engineering programme at Algonquin College, Ottawa,
`Ontario, Canada. His special area of interest is optic and optical fibre devices, fibre optic lighting,
`and fibre optic sensors. He is a member of the professional photonics societies in Canada. He is the
`recipient of the NISOD Excellence award from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005.
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`Table of Contents
`
`Chapter 1
`Fibre Optic Cables.....................................................................................................1
`1.1
`Introduction...............................................................................................................................1
`1.2 The Evolution of Fibre Optic Cables.......................................................................................1
`1.3 Fibre Optic Cables....................................................................................................................5
`1.4 Plastic Fibre Cables ..................................................................................................................6
`1.5 Light Propagation in Fibre Optic Cables .................................................................................7
`1.6 Refractive-Index Profile ...........................................................................................................8
`1.7 Types of Fibre Optic Cables ....................................................................................................8
`1.7.1 Single-Mode Step-Index Fibre Cable .......................................................................... 9
`1.7.2 Multimode Step-Index Fibre Cable (Multimode Fibre Cable) .................................. 9
`1.7.3 Multimode Graded-Index Fibre (Graded-Index Fibre Cable) .................................. 10
`1.8 Polarization Maintaining Fibre Cables...................................................................................10
`1.9 Specialty Fibre Cables............................................................................................................11
`1.10 Fibre Cable Fabrication Techniques ......................................................................................11
`1.10.1 Double Crucible Method .......................................................................................... 12
`1.10.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition Processes .................................................................. 13
`1.10.3 Outside Vapour Deposition ...................................................................................... 14
`1.10.4 Vapour Axial Deposition .......................................................................................... 14
`1.10.5 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition .................................................................... 15
`1.10.6 Plasma Chemical Vapour Deposition ...................................................................... 16
`1.11 Fibre Drawing.........................................................................................................................17
`1.12 Numerical Aperture ................................................................................................................17
`1.13 Modes in a Fibre Optic Cable ................................................................................................19
`1.14 Light Source Coupling to a Fibre Cable................................................................................20
`1.15 Launching Light Conditions into Fibre Cables .....................................................................22
`1.16 Fibre Tube Assembly .............................................................................................................23
`1.17 Fibre Optic Cables versus Copper Cables .............................................................................23
`1.18 Applications of Fibre Optic Cables........................................................................................25
`1.19 Experimental Work.................................................................................................................26
`1.19.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling........................................................ 26
`1.19.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation.................................................................... 26
`1.19.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation .................................................. 26
`1.19.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity.......................................................... 27
`1.19.5 Technique And Apparatus ........................................................................................ 27
`1.19.6 Procedure .................................................................................................................. 29
`1.19.7 Safety Procedure........................................................................................................ 29
`1.19.8 Apparatus Set-Up ...................................................................................................... 29
`1.19.8.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling ...................................... 29
`1.19.8.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation .................................................. 31
`1.19.8.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation.................................. 34
`1.19.8.4 Case (d) Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity.......................................... 35
`1.19.9 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 37
`1.19.9.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling ...................................... 37
`1.19.9.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation .................................................. 37
`1.19.9.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation.................................. 37
`1.19.9.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity ........................................ 37
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`1.19.10 Calculations and Analysis ...................................................................................... 38
`1.19.10.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling .................................. 38
`1.19.10.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation .............................................. 38
`1.19.10.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation.............................. 38
`1.19.10.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity .................................... 38
`1.19.11 Results and Discussions .......................................................................................... 38
`1.19.11.1 Case (a): Fibre Cable Inspection and Handling .................................. 38
`1.19.11.2 Case (b): Fibre Cable Ends Preparation .............................................. 38
`1.19.11.3 Case (c): NA and Acceptance Angles Calculation.............................. 39
`1.19.11.4 Case (d): Fibre Cable Power Output Intensity .................................... 39
`1.19.12 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 39
`1.19.13 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .......................................................................... 39
`1.20 List of References...................................................................................................................39
`1.21 Appendix.................................................................................................................................39
`Further Reading ...............................................................................................................................39
`
`Chapter 2
`Advanced Fibre Optic Cables .................................................................................41
`2.1
`Introduction.............................................................................................................................41
`2.2 Advanced Types of Fibre Optic Cables .................................................................................41
`2.2.1 Dual-Core Fibre for High-Power Laser .................................................................... 42
`2.2.2 Fibre Bragg Gratings ................................................................................................ 42
`2.2.2.1 Manufacturing Method .............................................................................. 43
`2.2.3 Chirped Fibre Bragg Gratings .................................................................................. 44
`2.2.3.1 Manufacturing Method .............................................................................. 45
`2.2.4 Blazed Fibre Bragg Gratings .................................................................................... 46
`2.2.5 Nonzero-Dispersion Fibre-Optic Cables .................................................................. 46
`2.2.6 Photonic Crystal Fibre Cables .................................................................................. 46
`2.2.7 Microstructure Fibre Cables ...................................................................................... 49
`2.2.8 Polymer Holey-Fibre Cables .................................................................................... 49
`2.2.9
`Image Fibre Cables.................................................................................................... 50
`2.2.10 Liquid Crystal Photonic Bandgap Fibre Cables ...................................................... 51
`2.2.11 Lensed and Tapered Fibre Cables ............................................................................ 51
`2.2.11.1 Advantages of Lensing Technology ........................................................ 52
`2.2.11.2 Manufacturing Technologies.................................................................... 53
`2.2.12 Bend-Insensitive Fibre Cables .................................................................................. 54
`2.2.13 Nanoribbon Fibre Optic Cables ................................................................................ 55
`2.3 Applications of Advanced Fibre Cables ................................................................................55
`2.4 Experimental Work.................................................................................................................57
`2.4.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 57
`2.4.2 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ............................................................................ 57
`2.5 List of References...................................................................................................................57
`2.6 Appendix.................................................................................................................................57
`Further Reading ...............................................................................................................................57
`
`Chapter 3
`Light Attenuation in Optical Components..............................................................59
`3.1
`Introduction.............................................................................................................................59
`3.2 Light Losses in an Optical Material.......................................................................................59
`3.2.1 Absorption.................................................................................................................. 60
`3.2.2 Dispersion .................................................................................................................. 60
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`3.2.3 Scattering .................................................................................................................. 60
`3.2.4 Light Loss in Parallel Optical Surfaces .................................................................... 61
`3.2.5 Light Loss in an Epoxy Layer .................................................................................. 61
`3.2.6 Bending and Micro-Bending .................................................................................... 62
`3.3 Attenuation Calculations ........................................................................................................63
`3.4 Experimental Work.................................................................................................................65
`3.4.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................................................................................... 65
`3.4.2 Procedure .................................................................................................................. 66
`3.4.3 Safety Procedure........................................................................................................ 66
`3.4.4 Apparatus Setup ........................................................................................................ 66
`3.4.4.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to Five
`Microscope Slides ...................................................................................... 66
`3.4.4.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single Slide Inclined
`at Different Angles .................................................................................... 67
`3.4.4.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy Layer Between
`Two Slides .................................................................................................. 68
`3.4.4.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre Optic Cable .............................. 70
`3.4.4.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Due
`to Micro-Bending ...................................................................................... 71
`3.4.4.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Coupled
`to a Grin Lens at the Input and/or Output ................................................ 72
`3.4.5 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 73
`3.4.5.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to Five
`Microscope Slides ...................................................................................... 73
`3.4.5.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single Slide Inclined at
`Different Angles ........................................................................................ 73
`3.4.5.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy Layer between
`Two Slides .................................................................................................. 74
`3.4.5.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable .............................. 74
`3.4.5.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Due
`to Micro-Bending ...................................................................................... 74
`3.4.5.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Coupled
`to a Grin Lens at the Input and/or Output ................................................ 75
`3.4.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................................................................................ 75
`3.4.6.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to Five
`Microscope Slides ...................................................................................... 75
`3.4.6.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single Slide Inclined
`at Different Angles .................................................................................... 75
`3.4.6.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy Layer between
`Two Slides .................................................................................................. 75
`3.4.6.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable .............................. 76
`3.4.6.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Due to
`Micro-Bending............................................................................................ 76
`3.4.6.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Coupled
`to a Grin Lens at the Input and/or Output ................................................ 76
`3.4.7 Results and Discussions ............................................................................................ 76
`3.4.7.1 Laser Light Power Loss through One to Five
`Microscope Slides ...................................................................................... 76
`3.4.7.2 Laser Light Power Loss through a Single Slide Inclined at
`Different Angles .......................................................................................... 76
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`3.4.7.3 Laser Light Power Loss through an Epoxy Layer
`Between Two Slides .................................................................................. 76
`3.4.7.4 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable .............................. 77
`3.4.7.5 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Due to
`Micro-Bending ............................................................................................ 77
`3.4.7.6 Laser Light Power Loss through a Fibre-Optic Cable Coupled
`to a Grin Lens at the Input and/or Output.................................................. 77
`3.4.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 77
`3.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work ............................................................................ 77
`3.5 List of References...................................................................................................................77
`3.6 Appendices..............................................................................................................................77
`Further Reading ...............................................................................................................................77
`
`Chapter 4
`Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Installations .............................................................79
`4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................79
`4.2 Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications............................................................................80
`4.2.1
`Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications .................................................. 80
`4.2.2 Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications ................................................ 81
`4.2.3
`Indoor/Outdoor Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications .................................... 82
`4.2.4 Other Fibre-Optic Cable Types and Applications .................................................... 83
`4.3 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation Methods.................................................................................83
`4.3.1
`Indoor Fibre-Optic Cable Installation ...................................................................... 83
`4.3.2 Cable Installation in Tray and Duct Systems .......................................................... 84
`4.3.3 Conduit Installation .................................................................................................. 85
`4.3.4 Pulling Fibre-Optic Cable Installation ...................................................................... 85
`4.3.5 Fibre-Optic Cables Direct Burial Installation .......................................................... 86
`4.3.6 Fibre-Optic Cable Aerial Installation........................................................................ 87
`4.3.7 Air-Blown Fibre Cable Installation .......................................................................... 87
`4.3.8 Other Fibre Cable Installation Methods.................................................................... 87
`4.4 Standard Hardware for Fibre-Optic Cables ...........................................................................88
`4.4.1 Fibre Splice Closures ................................................................................................ 88
`4.4.2 Rack with Panels ...................................................................................................... 89
`4.4.3 Connector Housings .................................................................................................. 89
`4.4.4 Patch Panels .............................................................................................................. 90
`4.4.5 Splice Housings ........................................................................................................ 90
`4.4.6 Wall Outlets .............................................................................................................. 90
`4.4.7 Fibre-Optic Testing Equipment ................................................................................ 91
`4.5 Fibre-Optic Cable Test Requirements....................................................................................91
`4.6 Experimental Work.................................................................................................................91
`4.6.1 Technique and Apparatus .......................................................................................... 92
`4.6.2 Procedure .................................................................................................................. 92
`4.6.3 Safety Procedure........................................................................................................ 92
`4.6.4 Apparatus Setup ........................................................................................................ 93
`4.6.4.1 Fibre-Optic Cable Installation .................................................................... 93
`4.6.5 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 93
`4.6.6 Calculations and Analysis ........................................................................................ 93
`4.6.7 Results and Discussions ............................................................................................ 93
`4.6.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 93
`4.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work .............................................................................. 94
`4.7 List of References...................................................................................................................94
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`4.8 Appendix.................................................................................................................................94
`Further Reading ...............................................................................................................................94
`
`Chapter 5
`Fibre-Optic Connectors ...........................................................................................95
`5.1
`Introduction.............................................................................................................................95
`5.2 Applications of Connectors and Splices ................................................................................95
`5.3 Requirements of Connectors and Splices ..............................................................................96
`5.4 Fibre Connectors.....................................................................................................................96
`5.5 Mechanical Considerations.....................................................................................................98
`5.5.1 Durability .................................................................................................................. 99
`5.5.2 Environmental Considerations .................................................................................. 99
`5.5.3 Compatibility ............................................................................................................ 99
`5.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Types .................................................................................................99
`5.7 Adapters for Different Fibre-Optic Connector Types..........................................................100
`5.8 Fibre-Optic Connector Structures ........................................................................................100
`5.9 Fibre-Optic Connector Assembly Techniques .....................................................................101
`5.9.1 Common Fibre Connector Assembly...................................................................... 101
`5.9.2 Hot-Melt Connector ................................................................................................ 101
`5.9.3 Epoxyless Connector .............................................................................................. 101
`5.9.4 Automated Polishing .............................................................................................. 102
`5.9.5 Fluid Jet Polishing .................................................................................................. 102
`5.9.6 Fibre-Optic Connector Cleaning ............................................................................ 102
`5.9.7 Connector Testing.................................................................................................... 102
`5.10 Fibre Splicing ..........................................................................................................