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`Heterophony in Oxford Music Online
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`Heterophony
`(from Gk. heteros: 'other', 'different' and phone: 'voice').
`
`Term coined by Plato, of uncertain meaning; now used to describe simultaneous variation of a
`single melody. Plato used the word (Laws, vii, p.812) when discussing the unsuitability of music for
`lyre and voice in musical education. It is not clear if he meant that the 'other voice' (the lyre)
`provided a contrasting melody, a harmonization of the vocal part or deliberate variations on it. Thus
`its meaning could range from reference to minute discrepancies in singing or playing in unison or
`octaves (even, for instance, those produced unintentionally within the first violins of an orchestra) to
`the most complex of contrapuntal writing. In modern times the term is frequently used, particularly in
`ethnomusicology, to describe simultaneous variation, accidental or deliberate, of what is identified
`as the same melody. Ex.1 [not available online], from Beethoven's Missa solemnis, illustrates the
`practice of distributing the same melody among different voice or instrument parts with different
`rhythmic densities. While this is a common enough occurrence between the cello and double bass
`parts in European orchestral writing, it is basic to some non-European music, for example the
`gamelan music of south-east Asia (see INDONESIA).
`
`The term 'heterophony' is also used in discussion of much accompanied vocal music of the Middle
`East and East Asia, where the instrument provides an embellished version of the vocal part. One
`instance is the relationship between lyra and voice in the performance of Kleftic ballads (see
`GREECE, §IV, 1(1V)). Heterophony is also likely to occur frequently in group singing within orally
`transmitted monophonic traditions, as in ex.2 , where the highly individual and ornamental treatment
`given to a straightforward metrical psalm tune is explained as the work of 'individual people, who in
`the singing fellowship reserve the freedom to bear witness to their relation to God on a personal
`basis' (Knudsen).
`
`i.::- _ .-6 . ~--~
`Ex.2 Opening of 'Martyrdom', Isle of Lewis, Hebrides (Knudsen)
`
`Bibliography
`
`.!Y.f.c;?.g?. (R. Schumacher)
`
`G. Adler: 'Uber Heterophonie', !.!?.ME'. 1908, 17-27 ~Find it @o NU
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`Oxfolldl lndex
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`W.P. Maim: 'On the Meaning and Invention of the Term "Disphony"', .S.t.!J.JYI., xvi (1972), 247-9
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`Peter Cooke
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`Homophony in Oxford Music Online
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`Homophony
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`article uri: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.turing.library.northwestern.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/13291
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`Homophony
`(from Gk. homophonia: 'sounding alike').
`
`Polyphonic music in which all melodic parts move together at more or less the same pace. A further
`distinction is sometimes made between homophonic textures that are homorhythmic (ex.1 ) and
`those in which there is a clear differentiation between melody and accompaniment (ex.2). In the
`latter case all the parts- whether melodic soprano, supporting bass, or accompanimental inner
`parts- work together to articulate an underlying succession of harmonies. Homophonic music
`balances the melodic conduct of individual parts with the harmonies that result from their interaction,
`but one part- often but not always the highest- usually dominates the entire texture. While in
`principle the same basic precepts govern the melodic behaviour of all the parts, in practice the
`treble tends to be more active than the others and to have a wider ambitus, and while conjunct
`motion is the rule in upper voices, leaps are common and sometimes even prevalent in the bass.
`Inner parts are used to fill in between the two outer voices, which form the contrapuntal framework
`of the music.
`
`Ex.1 Tallis: If ye love me (c1549)
`
`To hear this example please click here
`
`Ex.2 Chopin: Nocturne in E major, op.62 no.2 (1846)
`
`To hear this example please click here Sibelius Enabl!:!·d
`
`Homophonic textures occur in most if not all European musical traditions. Since at least the middle
`of the Baroque period music theorists have regarded the homophonic arrangement of four voices
`(soprano, alto, tenor, bass) as the normative texture of Western music: it has been generally
`assumed that all tonal music, including melodic imitation, can be represented in terms of a four-part
`texture and heard as chorale-like successions of harmonies. An important pedagogical practice has
`thus arisen around the 371 chorale harmonizations of J.S. Bach, while Gottfried Weber chose a
`homophonic composition -the march of the priests from Mozart's Die Zauberflote- for the first ever
`
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`Homophony in Oxford Music Online
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`Monophony in Oxford Music Online
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`Mono phony
`(from Gk. monos: 'single', and phone: 'voice').
`
`Music for a single voice or part, for example plainchant and unaccompanied solo song. The term is
`contrasted with POLYPHONY (music in two or more independent parts), HETEROPHONY (the
`simultaneous sounding of a melody or line and a variation of it) and HOMOPHONY (which implies
`rhythmic similarity in a number of parts).
`
`For monophonic vocal forms in Western music see PLAINCHANT ; TROUBADOURS, TROUVERES ;
`MINNESANG ; MEISTERGESANG; LAUDA and SONG ; see a/so ESTAMPIE . Monophonic music is also
`important in non-Western and traditional cultures, where it may have an improvised or drone
`accompaniment.
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`Polyphony in Oxford Music Online
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`
`Polyphony.
`
`A term used to designate various important categories in music: namely, music in more than one
`part, music in many parts, and the style in which all or several of the musical parts move to some
`extent independently. PolyphOnos ('many-voiced') and polyphonia occur in ancient Greek without
`any connotations of musical technique. After classical antiquity, forms of the adjective came into use
`in modern languages, designating both non-musical phenomena such as birdcalls, human speech
`and multiple echoes, and musical phenomena such as instrumental range and tonal variety, as well
`as the various tunes playable on an automatic musical device.
`
`I. Western
`
`1. Multiplicity of parts.
`In connection with the technique of composition, the Latin terms polyphon(ic)us and polyphonia, and
`their modern derivatives, were first used to refer to 'music in multiple parts'. An author named
`'Johannes' contrasted cantus simplex for one part with polyphonia for more than one (Summa
`musice, ?_~1200, wrongly attributed to Johannes de Muris; GerbertS, iii, 239a). He described
`polyphony as dyaphonia, triphonia or tetraphonia, according to the numbers of parts, and
`distinguished between basilica (sustained-note organum) and organica (discant). Polyphonia is
`mentioned in an anonymous treatise, probably of the mid-14th century (B-Br 10162-6), not so much
`as an all-embracing term for dyaphonia, triphonia and tetraphonia, but rather as the alternative to
`dyaphonia. The treatise distinguishes between music for one voice and music for more than one
`voice, describing the former as monophonia, the latter as dyaphonia seu poliphonia (f.48).
`Dyaphonia and poliphonia differ both in the number of parts ('unio duarum' or 'plurium vocum') and
`in the setting. Dyaphonia (the Guidonian organum and the extempore discant of the late 13th
`century, based largely on parallel 5ths and octaves; see DIAPHONIA) is regarded as an essentially
`homorhythmic setting ('duarum vocum simul in eodem tempore vel quasi eodem prolatarum unio'
`[the bringing together of two voice parts performed simultaneously or more or less simultaneously];
`'finaliter tamen ad unum aliquid revertuntur et dyaphoniam causant' [but finally they return to a
`certain unity and form a dyaphonia]), despite the use of hocket and other devices. Poliphonia, on
`the other hand, can have great rhythmic diversity in its parts- although only parts 'cum discretione
`mensurabilis' [with mensuration], not liturgical parts 'sine discretione, puta organica' [without
`mensuration, that is to say in accordance with organum] (f.54). These two treatises may appear to
`represent historically isolated instances, but from at least the time of Luscinius's Musurgia seu
`praxis musicae (1536), in which instruction in the notation and composition of music for several
`voices is given under the heading 'De concentus polyphoni ratione', there has been a continous
`tradition for the concept, extending through Johann Heinrich Alsted (Scientiarum omnium
`encyclopaedia, 1649) and Kircher to the present day. Where 'polyphony' is used more specifically
`for composition involving several parts of equal importance (see §2, below)- that is, in most
`languages except English and French -the older terminology survives almost exclusively in its
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`more general sense, as in SchillingE, Mendel and Reissmann (1877/R) and Kurth (Grundlagen des
`linearen Kontrapunkts, Berne, 1917, p.59, n.1). In English and French, however, the older, non(cid:173)
`specific usage is the primary one (see, e.g., Nettl).
`
`Since the early 17th century the terms 'polyphonic' and 'polyphony' have also been used in a
`narrower sense to denote musical composition for more than four parts (see Alsted, Eng. trans.,
`1664, pp.70, 89), Kircher (i, 322), Hauser (Musikalisches Lexikon, 1828, 2/1833, 'Vielstimmig,
`polyphonisch') and Bellermann (p.291 ).
`
`2. Several parts of equal importance.
`Perhaps as early as Kircher (1650), and certainly since Marpurg (Kritische Einleitung in die
`Geschichte und Lehrsatze der a/ten und neuen Musik, 1759), polyphonicus and its modern(cid:173)
`language equivalents have also been used in the sense of 'consisting of several parts of equal
`importance'. Kircher undoubtedly had polyphonic writing in this sense in mind when he challenged
`the belief that polyphony cannot move the emotions (i, 561 ). He also used the term 'homophonous'
`in its modern sense in speaking of 'voces ... [homophones] sive aequali processu ... progredientes',
`in which 'semibrevium syncopae' and 'fugae' are avoided (i, 314). However, he never contrasted
`polyphony and homophony. Not until Bellermann (1862), to whom 'in many parts' (vielstimmig) was
`'the real and natural meaning' of 'polyphonus', were both the 'homophonic' and the 'polyphonic'
`style characterized by the rhythmic relationship of the parts to each other (p.292). In this Bellermann
`did not follow Kircher, considering that the 'more modern' usage dated from not long before 1800.
`However, the contrast is clear in Marpurg, who in turn followed the tradition of Printz.
`
`Printz himself had used the terms monodicus and polyodicus, applying the former to music with only
`one main voice (the principal part) and the latter to counterpoint consisting of several parts of equal
`importance (Phrynis, iii, 1696, pp.97, 131). He seems to have been one ofthefirstto draw a
`terminological distinction between monody and polyphony (in the sense used here), although he did
`not use those terms. His distinction was adopted, sometimes word for word, by Nichelmann (Die
`Me/odie, 1755), although the latter saw 'polyody' as determined by harmony (quoted in Marpurg,
`Historisch-kritische Beytrage zur Aufnahme der Musik, ii, 1754-8, p.264); a century later polyphony
`was defined by the secondary importance in it of harmony (see §4 below). More specifically,
`Nichelmann, like Marpurg, had in mind the contrast between melodies devised together with their
`harmonies, and those devised regardless of harmonic considerations. Marpurg, however- and this
`must have been a deciding factor in future linguistic usage- preferred the terms 'polyphonic' and
`'homophonic' (polyphonisch and homophonisch) to 'polyodic' and 'monodic' (polyodisch and
`monodisch), which he associated with the chorody and monody of classical antiquity (Kritische
`Einleitung, 1759, p.234).
`
`The next occurrences of 'polyphony' are in Koch (1782-93, iii, index, 1802, 'Polyphonische
`Schreibart', 'Styl Schreibart' and 'Hauptstimme'); in the last-named entry Koch referred to the
`linguistic usage of certain unnamed music theorists (possibly Marpurg), implying that this was not
`yet generally accepted, as it obviously was after Koch. Since Koch, however, reference works have
`differed in the precise definitions that they offer and in the ideals of polyphony that they propound.
`
`3. Equal development of individual parts.
`Since Koch's Musikalisches Lexikon (1802/R), full development of the separate parts- the investing
`of several parts with the character of a main voice and the raising of accompanying voices to the
`status of counter-voices- has been regarded as a defining feature of polyphony. Even authors who
`otherwise distinguish between polyphony and homophony primarily on the grounds of the
`compositional function of harmony (see §4) consider this a valid criterion in defining 'the most
`genuine polyphonic composition' or 'true polyphony' (e.g. Adler, p.53). The definition of polyphony
`by the melodic structural value of the parts allowed writers concerned with the differentiation of
`styles to distinguish among different kinds of polyphony. Mersmann, for instance, defined polyphony
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`as either 'constructive', 'contingent on sound' or 'linear' (also 'absolute'), depending on the relative
`importance of rhythmic, harmonic or melodic forces; he admitted 'linear polyphony' only before and
`after the epoch of major and minor tonality (Die Tonsprache der neuen Musik, 1928, p.36).
`Harburger distinguished polyphony from homophony by citing the 'refined polyphony of Mozart's
`and Haydn's melodies' at one extreme, and from heterophony by citing the polyphony of late
`Beethoven and the later developments of 'linear counterpoint' at the other (Form und
`Ausdrucksmittel in der Musik, 1926, p.130).
`
`In addition to Koch's definition of this technical feature of polyphony (i.e. that 'several parts can
`claim the character of a main part'), his observation that 'the feelings of several people are
`expressed' also deserves emphasis. This is not simply a description of the way music is
`experienced in general. Even genres such as the fugue were felt by Forkel, Sulzer and Koch to
`carry a heightened expression of feeling (it was only in the course of the 19th century that they
`came to be pronounced in general 'objective', that is, emotionally neutral). Koch's remark applies
`more specifically to the kinds of music he cited as examples of polyphony: operatic ensembles,
`duets, trios and quartets. Gathy (Musikalisches Conversationslexikon, 1835, 211840) mentioned
`among other examples the finale of Act 1 of Spontini's Olimpie and the finale of Act 4 of Salieri's
`Axur ('polyphonic composition'). Kuster, who several times claimed that polyphony could express
`'dramatic liveliness' (Populare Vortrage, iv: Das Ideal des Tonkanstler, 1877, p.88), cited the chorus
`'Fuggiamo, corriamo' from Mozart's ldomeneo (Populare Vortrage, ii: Die hOheren Tonformen, 1872,
`p.189). However, the understanding of polyphony as the simultaneous expression of different
`feelings was diminishing; Koch's definition was significantly weakened by the words 'as it were' in
`Schilling, who described polyphony as the type of writing 'in which ... as it were, the feelings of
`several persons are expressed simultaneously' and later abandoned the definition altogether.
`Typical of the tendency to find polyphony 'objective' is A.B. Marx's article on J .S. Bach in the second
`edition of Schilling's encyclopedia, which emphasized the distant, grave objective and universal
`nature of polyphonic music, opposing it to the greater subjectivity of homophony. Marx regarded
`Bach's polyphony as his ideal (see §6, below), and he viewed polyphony as part of the 'strict' style.
`Koch (1802, 'Styl, Schreibart') described it as including both monothematic and imitative elements
`(and thus being particularly suitable for sacred music); he also characterized it by the 'grave
`progress' of the melody and the strict handling of dissonance. However, if polyphony cannot be
`consigned to the 'strict' style (MCL, 'Styl'), that is due not least to the contribution of the Viennese
`Classicists and 19th-century composers to the individual development of polyphonic parts and their
`use of contrapuntal techniques. (The distinction between 'strict' counterpoint and 'free' polyphony in
`the writings of Riemann and Knorr also took account of this; see §7, below.) Mendel and Reissmann
`went so far as to prefer a distinction drawn on the grounds of musical forces- e.g. between vocal,
`keyboard and orchestra polyphony - to one between a strict and a free style, even within polyphony.
`
`In using the term 'polyphony' to classify musical compositions, writers have been aware that
`polyphony and homophony represent two extremes, separated by intermediate stages. Bellermann
`(p.292), for instance, objected to the terms 'polyphonic' and 'homophonic' because 'in every song
`for more than one voice the parts are to be developed melodically, and therefore independently, and
`because of the different rhythmic movement of individual parts there will be an enormous number of
`pieces in which the separate parts appear too independent for the style to be reckoned homophonic,
`or even, polyphonic'. Consequently, some writers, such as Koch, favoured a tripartite division of
`compositional styles: of Koch's three 'processes' of composition the first two represent 'homophonic'
`procedures and the third 'polyphonic' procedure (1782-93, ii, 82-3; cf Marx, Anleitung zum Vortrag
`Beethovenscher Klavierwerke, 1863, 511912, pp.97-8).
`
`4. Subordinate importance of harmony.
`Since the middle of the 19th century, with the gradual rediscovery of medieval and Renaissance
`music for several voices, polyphonic music has been defined as such by the subordinate importance
`in it of harmony. The term 'polyphonic' has also been used by some musicologists to designate a
`historical period (though less convincingly so as polyphony has increasingly come to supplant
`harmony in contemporary music). One of the earliest of these references occurs in Helmholtz, who
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`distinguished between 'three main phases of development' in music (Die Lehre von den
`Tonempfindungen, 1863, 6/1913, p.396; cf. AmbrosGM, iii, 121 ):
`
`"(1) the homophonic (one-part) music of antiquity, with which is linked the music
`now being produced by the peoples of Oriental and Asiatic lands; (2) the
`polyphonic music of the Middle Ages- in many parts, but still without reference to
`the independent musical significance of the simultaneous sounds -extending
`from the 1Oth to the 17th century when it passes over into (3) harmonic or modern
`music, characterized by the independent significance accorded to harmony as
`such. Its origins lie in the 16th century."
`
`Many authors take the function of harmony as a criterion so seriously that they describe even
`Bach's organ polyphony as secondary and illusory (Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach, i, 1873-80,
`3/1921, p.1 01 ), or consider its harmonies the product of the part-writing (Adler, p.266), although
`Riemann thought that the true nature of polyphony was revealed only within the harmonic
`framework of major/minor tonality (Grosse Kompositionslehre, i, 1902, pp.175-6). Later authors, on
`the other hand, regarded Bach's polyphony as a transition between (or a unification of) polyphony
`and functional harmony (A. Berg, 1930), quoted in W. Reich, Gesprache mit Komponisten, 1964,
`pp.234-5, and L. Balet and E. Gerhard [Rebling], Die Verburgerlichung der deutschen Kunst:
`Literatur und Musik im 18. Jahrhundert, 1936, p.342). Others saw the practice of continuo serving
`as a historical link between polyphony and homophony (E. Pepping, Der polyphone Satz, i, 1943,
`p.1 0).
`
`Schoenberg (Harmonielehre, 1911, 3/1922, p.466) even credited the polyphonic style of writing with
`the ability to legitimize new harmonies. Conversely, new and more particularly dissonant harmonies
`were described by others as 'polyphonic' (e.g. E. Stein, 'Schon bergs Klang', Arnold SchOnberg zum
`60. Geburtstag, 1934, p.27; T.W. Adorno, Philosophie der neuen Musik, 1949, 4/1972, pp.55-6). As
`harmony assumed this new position within polyphony, however, a precise balance between the
`parts was demanded, what Boulez called a 'mutual responsibility of the notes' ('Contrepoint',
`Fasquel/eE). Schoenberg himself did not approve of establishing the principles of part-writing or
`harmony as absolutes, however, and ascribed to harmony in polyphonic composition the function of
`'controlling taste' (Das Komponieren mit selbstandigen Stimmen, 1911; ed. R. Stephan, 248).
`
`The systematic musicology of the early 20th century radicalized the principles of harmony and
`polyphony, seeing pure 'harmony' as created by the parallel movement of parts at a constant
`interval, and pure 'polyphony' as created by the melodic differences between the parts (as in the
`drone, ostinato and heterophony); medieval discant and the kinds of polyphony that succeeded it
`were regarded as 'harmonic-polyphonic forms' (C.H. Hornbostel, 'Ober Mehrstimmigkeit in der
`aussereuropaischen Musik', IMusSCR/11: Vienna 1909, p.208). Similarly, though staying closer to
`Helmholtz, Stumpf (Die Anfange der Musik, 1911, pp.99-1 00) distinguished strictly between
`'polyphony' as 'the simultaneous performance of several different melodies, coming together only
`now and then in consonant intervals or in unison' and 'harmonic music' as 'finding aesthetic
`pleasure or the opposite in the simultaneous sounding of several different notes and the succession
`of such tonal complexes'.
`
`s. Simultaneous use of several structures.
`
`For Webern, the individual voice parts are less important as an element of polyphony than the
`sequence of notes contained in them. Although that sequence serves as an 'original form' or 'basic
`set' (Grundgestalt cf. Adorno) in the composition process, is subjected to familiar procedures and is
`arbitrarily endowed with a rhythm, Webern still described the style as 'polyphony' (p.37), even
`though the notes sometimes sound together in chords. Webern's own serial forms, however, are
`clearly reminiscent of part-writing, even of canon, which has given rise to the expression 'serial
`polyphony', a usage criticized by Eggebrecht because 'polyphony' no longer refers to genuine parts:
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`'Polyphonie', RiemannL 12). According to Boulez (Penser Ia musique aujourd'hui, 1964, p.153), on
`the other hand, the compositional parts are not done away with, but are freshly defined as
`'constellations of events obeying a certain number of common criteria; distribution of families of
`evolving structures in a mobile and discontinuous time dimension, with variable density and using
`non-homogeneous timbre; these constellations are mutually dependent in a very special way as far
`as pitches and durations are concerned'. Correspondingly, when referring to his own technique of
`composition Boulez also spoke of polyphony in addition to monody (music in one part), homophony
`('density-transformation of monody': 'the structure unfolds its objects horizontally, the vertical
`density of the object being variable', p.135) and heterophony ('the superposition upon a primary
`structure of a modified aspect of the same structure'). He defined polyphony as a combination of
`structures of which one is answerable to the other. The 'forms of syntactical organization' that he
`mentioned may also be combined to make a 'polyphony of polyphonies', a 'heterophony of
`heterophonies', a 'heterophony of polyphonies' and so on (p.133). Likewise, transitions may be
`effected between them; in other words, 'a monody may in fact represent a "reduced" poyphony, just
`as a polyphony will in actual fact be the distribution of "dispersion" of a monody' (pp .138-9).
`
`Non-serial and post-serial music, on the other hand, adheres to an essentially traditional concept of
`polyphony, although one that embraces new stylistic possibilities. Among them is Ligeti's 'micro(cid:173)
`polyphony', the 'technique of the close, dense amalgamation of instrumental and vocal parts' that he
`used particularly in the late 1950s. That it was still conceived within the framework of traditional
`polyphony is evident from its gradual transformation into a 'more transparent, more clear-cut, thin
`and more brittle polyphony', closer to the ideal of compositional part-writing (introduction to Ligeti's
`San Francisco Polyphony, 1973-4, in Musik und Bildung, vii (1975), 500).
`
`6. Ideals of polyphony.
`The different emphases of meaning conveyed by the term 'polyphony' reflect different concepts of
`the polyphonic ideal. Marx, who valued Bach's polyphony above all, measured even the polyphonic
`writing of the late Beethoven by that standard. Harmony, he considered, while only a contingent
`factor in Bach, was the very foundation and point of departure in Beethoven (and the reason why his
`polyphony remained rooted in homophony); the parts which came together in Bach were striving for
`freedom in Beethoven and the double counterpoint which was a guiding principle and purpose in
`Bach was only a means to Beethoven, and was thus less perfect ('Beethoven', SchillingE, i, 518). In
`line with this ideal of polyphony, Brahms denied the polyphonic character of the 'sound-surfaces' in
`Richard Strauss's F minor Symphony: 'One may weave together several triadic themes but that is
`still not polyphony' (quoted in 'Polyphonie', H.J. Moser, Musik-Lexikon, sup pl. 1963). Mahler, on the
`other hand, strove for the greatest possible differentiation of parts, referring to the random sounds of
`a forest festival -noises from swings and merry-go-rounds, shooting-galleries and puppet theatres,
`a military band and a male-voice choir- as the archetype of his polyphony. (That Mahler
`emphasized the need to observe strict compositional organization in these sound-pictures sets him
`apart from lves, who preferred the disorganized chance factor in such phenomena.) Mahler
`distinguished polyphony from 'something merely written in many parts' or 'disguised homophony':
`
`"'Do you hear that? That is polyphony and that is where I have got it from ...
`Exactly like that, coming from quite different sides, this is how the themes must be
`completely distinct in their rhythmic and melodic character (anything else is
`merely something written in many parts, disguised homophony); it requires that
`the artist should organize it and unify it into a congruous and harmonious whole'.
`(N. Sauer-Lechner, Erinnerungen an Gustav Mahler, 1923, p.147)"
`
`Busoni, for whom only melody was capable of a real function and harmony existed only as the aural
`result of polyphony, wanted polyphony to obey any impulse, to be nonthematic (and emancipated
`from fugue) and indeed atonal (Von der Einheit der Musik, 1922, pp.207, 211, 278)- an ideal that
`he approached most closely in his Berceuse elegiaque op.42 (1909) and in the second Sonatina for
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`Polyphony in Oxford Music Online
`
`piano (1912), and to which Schoenberg's free atonality largely corresponded. To Webern, finally,
`polyphony was the manner of writing in which melodic relationships between the parts could be
`made to form a musical synthesis (p.28).
`
`7. Relationship to counterpoint.
`The relationship between the terms 'polyphony' and 'counterpoint' depends less on definitions than
`on traditional musical classifications. Indeed, the two terms have been clearly differentiated only
`occasionally, as by the anonymous author of Harmonie oder Kontrapunkt (MMg, iv, 1872), who took
`counterpoint to mean the older method of composing in several parts and polyphony the newer
`method (although in discussing each method he spoke of both homophonic and polyphonic
`composition). More commonly, 'polyphony' has been used as a synonym for 'counterpoint':
`'Polyphonism ... composition in parts; contrapuntal composition .... - Polyphonist ... a master of the
`art of polyphony; a contrapuntist' (Dr. Webster's Complete Dictionary of the English Language, ed.
`C.A. Goodrich and N. Porter, 1864). However, 'counterpoint' is often used specifically for the actual
`process of forming additional parts (or the theory of doing so), while 'polyphony' refers to a
`composition constructed in parts e.g. Schucht, 'Wie und warum studiren wir Contrapunct?', NZM,
`xlvi (1880), 382b). Consequently, stylistic changes are ascribed to polyphony rather than to
`counterpoint. According to Riemann, for instance, polyphonic composition is taught as free
`composition, in contrast to strict counterpoint (Stephan, 241 ). Knorr, too, in his Lehrbuch der
`Fugenkomposition (191 0), called for 'mastery of free modern polyphony' (p.vi); he used the fugue
`from Brahms's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel as a model (p.137). Kaminski
`distinguished in a positively polemical way between polyphony and counterpoint (as the traditional
`theory of the process of forming additional parts ('Ober polyphone Musik', Musica, i (194 7), 82).
`However, Anselm Hughes and Eric Blom (' Polyphony', Grove3-5) and Vi ret ('Polyphonie',
`HoneggerD) used 'counterpoint' only to describe the teaching of composition, while 'polyphony'
`denoted a style of writing. In the Harvard Dictionary of Music (1944), Apel recommended the use of
`'polyphony' for medieval music, in opposition to monophony, and 'counterpoint' for personal styles,
`employed in teaching, a