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`SEISMIC ACQUISITION
`
`version 1.0 released 29/1/99
`
`INTRODUCTION
`ZEROOFFSET AND CMP METHODS
`NORMAL MOVEOUT
`FORMING A CMP GATHER
`TYPICAL ACQUISITION GEOMETRIES
`GATHER TYPES AND DOMAINS
`EFFECTS OF DIP AND STRUCTURE
`SEISMIC ACQUISITION IN PRACTICE
`OBSERVERS LOGS
`NAVIGATION
`RECORDING SYSTEMS
`RECORDING POLARITY
`SAMPLING AND ALIASING
`TAPE FORMATS
`ONBOARD PROCESSING
`TYPICAL SHOT RECORDS
`ADVANCED TOPICS
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`In this section we introduce the concepts of seismic acquisition, starting with a simple raybased concept
`and ending with more practical details of the typical systems in use today. The contents of this chapter
`are fundamental to seismic processing.
`
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`ZEROOFFSET AND CMP METHODS
`
`The simplest type of acquisition would be to use a single coincident source and receiver pair and profile
`the earth along a line as shown in the adjacent figure. Such an experiment would be called a zerooffset
`experiment because there is no offset distance between source and receiver (both marked as a yellow dot
`on the figure). The resulting seismic data will be singlefold because there will only be a single trace per
`subsurface position. The zerooffset concept is an important one and the method might be used in
`practise if noise could be ignored. In order to overcome the noise problem and additionally to estimate
`earth velocity, the method of acquisition most commonly used is the CommonMidPoint (CMP) method.
`The same method is also called CommonDepthPoint (CDP). Neither of the two names exactly describes
`the method, so while both are equally invalid, CMP is usually preferred.
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`The general idea of the method is to acquire a series of traces
`(gather) which reflect from the same common subsurface
`midpoint. In the adjacent figure source points are shown in
`red and receiver points in green. The traces are then summed
`(stacked) so that superior signaltonoise ratio to that of the
`singlefold stack results. The fold of the stack is determined
`by the number of traces in the CMP gather.
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`The earlier figure showed rays and the previous figure shows traces resulting from a single sixfold CMP
`gather depicting reflections from a single flat interface (these could be from any of the subsurface
`locations from the zerooffset figure). The reflection from the flat interface produces a curved series of
`arrivals on the seismic traces since it takes longer to travel to the far offsets than the near offsets. This
`hyperbolic curve (shown in the dotted red line) is called the Normal Moveout curve or NMO and is
`related to travel time, offset and velocity of the medium as shown by the equation in the figure. Before
`stacking the NMO curve must be corrected such that the seismic event lines up on the gather. This is
`called Normal Moveout Correction and the results are shown in the central portion of the figure. The
`moveout corrected traces are then stacked, to produce the 6fold stack trace, which simulates the zero
`offset response but with increased signaltonoise ratio.
`
`The CMP gather provides information about seismic velocity of propagation since this is the only
`unknown variable in the NMO equation. If the velocity applied is too low, the NMO curve will be
`overcorrected and if the velocity is too high the curve will be undercorrected. Both under and
`overcorrection result in a smeared stack which would be inferior to the perfect zerooffset trace.
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`CMP ACQUISITION
`
`While a CMP could be acquired using a single pair of source and
`receiver pair this would be very expensive and time consuming
`way to acquire several lines or a 3D cube of CMP gathers. In
`practise CMP acquisition is accomplished by firing the source
`into many receivers simultaneously as shown in adjacent figure
`(a) which depicts a shot gather where a single shot (red) is fired
`into six receivers (green). A receiver is also colocated with the
`shot to produce a zerooffset trace. By moving the source
`position an appropriate multiple of the receiver spacing CMP
`gathers can be constructed by reordering the shot traces (this
`process is called sorting). Figure (b) shows the original shot and
`second shot (traces in red). In this case, the shot has moved up a
`distance equal to the receiver spacing. The CMP spacing is equal
`to half the receiver spacing. Figure 3c shows how the fold of the
`CMP gathers is starting to build up after six shots have been
`fired. At the beginning of the line the fold builds up to it's
`maximum of three. The fold stays at the maximum until the end
`of the line is reached where the fold decreases.
`
`Questions:
`
`1. What happens to the CMP spacing if the receiver spacing is
`doubled ?
`
`2. What happens to the fold if the receiver spacing is doubled ?
`
`3. What happens to the fold if the shot spacing is halved ?
`
`4. What happens to the fold if the shot spacing is doubled ?
`
`Typically the boat will travel around 4 knots (8 km/h) and the
`shotpoint interval would be double the receiver group interval. A
`speed of 4 knots is approximately 2m/s which means
`approximately 12s between shots for a 25m shotpoint interval.
`During this time the compressors need to be able to recharge the
`airgun array before firing again. If the boat travels too fast then
`the desired record length may not be acquired, too slow and control of the streamer equipment control
`may be lost. A compromise is required depending on the geological target and sea conditions.
`
`As long as the shotpoint and receiver intervals are integer multiples of each other the CMP fold can be
`calculated by dividing half the cable length by the shotpoint interval. Noninteger increments can result
`in some strange geometries such as variable CMP spacing and fold. The following table summarises
`typical geometries. The fold calculation assumes a 3km cable and all units are in meters. Note that the
`table refers to the fold and spacing as acquired in the field. These parameters can, and often are, changed
`during the seismic processing flow. The maximum recording time is that practically established on
`modern vessels.
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`SHOT
`SPACING
`
`18.75
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`25
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`25
`
`50
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`
`
`RECEIVER
`SPACING
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`CMP
`SPACING
`
`FOLD
`
`MAXIMUM
`RECORDING
`
`12.5
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`12.5
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`25
`
`25
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`6.25
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`6.25
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`12.5
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`12.5
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`80
`
`60
`
`60
`
`30
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`4.5s
`
`8s
`
`8s
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`20s
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`
`GATHER TYPES
`
`The adjacent figure shows
`raypaths for various types
`of gather which can be
`constructed by sorting traces
`from the CMP acquisition
`technique. Data sorting
`changes the domain of the
`data for example from CMP
`domain to commonoffset
`domain. Each trace will be
`assigned a series of
`identifiers during acquisition
`which will be used to sort
`the data. These identifiers or
`trace headers will include
`things like shot number,
`receiver number, trace
`number within shot and
`sourcereceiver offset.
`During processing the data
`may be sorted many ways
`using these headers usually
`in order to find a domain
`where noise is separated
`from signal so it can be
`suppressed. Whatever the
`processing sequence, the sort from shot to CMP gather must always be applied before stacking.
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`EFFECT OF DIPPING HORIZONS
`
`The previous figures and discussion have assumed that the reflecting strata are horizontal. Unfortunately
`the introduction of dip introduces many complications as shown above. Figure (a) shows sixfold ray
`paths for a horizontal three reflector case and in (b) a case in which moderate dip is involved. The CMP
`method holds for multiple layers and the data can be moved out and stacked to produce three reflections.
`Note that refraction occurs at the velocity boundaries and velocity increases in each layer. Where dip is
`present it is clear that the CMP method is breaking down since the traces do not all reflect from the same
`midpoint location. Processing techniques such as DMO and Migration are required to accurately process
`CMP data acquired from dipping strata. For further discussion on velocity analysis for multilayered or
`dipping data click here.
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`
`MARINE ACQUISITION IN PRACTICE
`
`Practical limitations limit the effectiveness with which we can acquire marine seismic data. For example
`the modern sleeve airgun source does not produce an exact impulse but is tuned to produce a broadband
`spectrum in the typical seismic frequencies 5100Hz.
`
`The adjacent figure shows details of a typical acquisition system (either 2D or 3D) in cross section mode.
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`A number of points are
`noted with particular
`reference to seismic
`processing.
`
`1. The antenna forms the major reference point for the rest of the equipment towed behind the vessel.
`Navigation positions are measured from the antenna, however it is noted that the source to receiver
`distance is what is required in processing.
`
`2. The source (shown in red) is towed at a fixed offset and depth from the back of the ship. Several
`arrays of airguns of different
`volumes are tuned to obtain as
`impulse a source as possible.
`The source signal is affected by
`source ghost reflections from
`the sea surface which
`destructively interfere with the
`signal at certain frequencies
`depending on the source depth
`(see adjacent figure). The
`calculation assumes raypaths
`are vertical and that the sea
`surface reflection is 1. For a
`source depth of 7.5m frequencies of 0, 100Hz and 200Hz would be completely cancelled.
`
`3. The receivers are mounted in a neutrally buoyant cable up to 9km long (3km in the diagram) which
`is towed at a fixed depth and offset behind the vessel and behind the source. The hydrophones are
`towed in groups (shown in blue) which are usually spaced 12.5m apart. The recorded signal is
`affected by receiver ghost reflections from the sea surface which destructively interfere with the
`signal at certain frequencies depending on the receiver depth (see previous discussion on source
`ghost).
`
`4. Particularly for 3D data a tailbuoy would be placed at the far end of the streamer to mark the end
`and provide a navigational reference point.
`
`The following figure shows the acquisition system in plan view for a typical 3D vessel with two sources
`and four streamers. In this mode eight subsurface CMP lines are acquired simultaneously. A 2D vessel
`would use a single source and streamer towed behind each other to acquire a single subsurface line. It is
`noted that the reality of acquisition is much more complicated than these diagrams indicate. The
`diagrams show details of what is required for seismic processing.
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`OBSERVERS LOGS
`
`The recording and acquisition details for each line within a survey are described in the observers reports
`or logs. These usually paper (but increasingly digital) reports are critical to the processing of seismic
`data. Unfortunately they are often lost and are sometimes misleading and incorrect. However they are
`records made in the field and may be the only place where deviations from the acquisition specifications,
`such as missed shots, bad traces, noise files, changes in neartrace offset, level of interference etc are
`recorded. It is difficult (but not impossible) to process seismic data from field tapes without the observers
`logs.
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`
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`NAVIGATION
`
`A modern seismic acquisition system uses several navigation systems firstly to determine and control the
`position of the vessel in the water and secondly to determine the position of the seismic equipment
`trailing the vessel. Modern systems almost exclusively rely on GPS (global positioning system) for the
`majority of positioning. Small receivers mounted on the vessel, tailbuoys and gunfloats can detect
`signals almost anywhere in the world from 3 or more satellites and determine position within 10m via
`triangulation. Acoustic systems or pingers are also used in 3D vessels on the source system. Some 3D
`vessels additionally use laser positioning on the source and tailbuoys. A vast amount of navigation data
`can be collected onboard a modern multistreamer seismic vessel. The navigation data requires onboard
`processing and checking to ensure that all the measurements agree within error. This navigation data
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`should be provided along with the seismic data for data processing purposes where the seismic and
`navigation information are merged. This is especially important for 3D processing. Following navigation
`merge the seismic trace headers contain the (x,y) positions of the source and receiver for that trace.
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`
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`POLARITY
`
`As compresses air is expelled from the gun chamber it expands in the water to form a bubble
`(rarefraction) which then collapses (compression). An initial impulse is followed by the oscillitory
`bubble pulse. The Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) ambiguously defines polarity for seismic
`data recording, that a rarefaction is a positive number and a compression a negative number on tape. An
`increase in acoustic impedance or positive reflection coefficient is also represented by a trough i.e. a
`negative number on tape. Once the data is recorded it can be displayed at any polarity. Data is usually
`recorded at SEG standard polarity.
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`
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`RECORDING
`
`In the marine case the seismic reflections are recorded by hydrophones (which detect pressure or
`acceleration changes) and in the land or oceanbottom seismic case by geophones (which detect motion
`or velocity changes). There is a 90 degree phase change between the two systems. The signal is usually
`recorded by analogue instruments and must be digitised to be stored on computer tape. The process of
`digitising involves forming a time series of the analogue signal by sampling it at a regular interval. A
`typical trace or record length for exploration seismology would be 6 seconds although for deep crustal
`work 15 to 20 seconds is common. Waterbottom acquisition systems often combine geophone and
`hydrophone measurements.
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`SAMPLING AND ALIASING
`
`The use of digital computer technology means that the analogue signal must be sampled at regular
`intervals in time in order to be processed. On older systems this sampling was carried out at the recording
`system. On modern digital systems the sampling is carried out within the streamer itself. Any signal
`would be perfectly represented in the computer if an infinite number of samples were taken.
`
`The adjacent figure shows a signal sampled at two different intervals. The top slide shows that a good
`representation of the 20Hz signal can be made by samples taken every 25ms (marked by the blue stars).
`In the bottom slide samples are taken every 75ms. An insufficient number of samples are taken and the
`higher frequency information is "lost" or aliased. The original 20Hz red curve appears as a 6.7Hz blue
`dotted curve.
`
`The highest frequency f which can be sampled by inteval d is 1/2d this is called the Nyquist Frequency.
`Higher frequencies than this are said to be temporally aliased because they will appear as if they are
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`detail here.
`
`lower frequencies. Typical
`sampling intervals are 1, 2, 4,
`8 milliseconds with aliasing
`occurring above
`500,250,125,62.5 Hz
`respectively. If data are
`sampled at an interval of 4ms
`then a frequency of 150Hz
`would appear as if it were
`100Hz i.e. it would corrupt
`the true 100Hz signal. Before
`the data are sampled the
`higher frequencies which
`would be aliased by the
`chosen sampling interval
`must be removed by an
`analogue filter in the
`recording system.
`
`Sampling is equally as
`important in space as it is in
`time and is discussed in more
`
`If either temporally or spatially aliased data are admitted into further processing stages then artifacts and
`noise may well be introduced which could potentially be misleading. An understanding of sampling
`(particularly spatial sampling) is an important part of survey design and can affect survey costs and
`quality. It is obviously important to sample signal correctly, but it is equally vital to adequately sample
`noise if this is to be removed by processing routines.
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`TAPE FORMATS
`
`Several tape formats defined by the SEG are currently in use. These standards are often treated quite
`liberally, especially where 3D data is concerned. Most contractors also process data using their own
`internal formats which are generally more efficient than the SEG standards.
`
`The two commonest formats are SEGD (for field data) and SEGY for final or intermediate products.
`The previous figure shows the typical way in which a seismic trace is stored on tape for SEGY format.
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`The use of headers is particularly important since these headers are used in seismic processing to
`manipulate the seismic data. Older multiplexed formats (data acquired in channel order) such as SEGB
`would typically be demultiplexed (in shot order) and transcribed to SEGY before processing. In SEGY
`format a 3200 byte EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) "text" header arranged
`as forty 80 character images is followed by a 400 byte binary header which contains general information
`about the data such as number of samples per trace. This is followed by the 240 byte trace header (which
`contains important information related to the trace such as shotpoint number, trace number) and the trace
`data itself stored as IBM floating point numbers in 32 byte format. The trace, or a series of traces such as
`a shot gather, will be terminated by an EOF (End of File) marker. The tape is terminated by an EOM
`(End of Media) marker. Several lines may be concatenated on tape separated by two EOF markers
`(double end of file). Separate lines should have their own EBCIDC headers, although this may be
`stripped out (particularly for 3D archives) for efficiency. Each trace must have it's own 240 byte trace
`header. Note there are considerable variations in the details of the SEGY format. The AHC Houston
`documentation provides more details.
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`ONBOARD PROCESSING
`
`Modern acquisition vessels can quality control and process 2D and 3D seismic data onboard depending
`on the size of computer system and number of operators installed. A PROMAX system (or equivalent)
`and operator are usually provided to QC the seismic data as it is acquired. Quality control would
`typically included shot displays, FK analysis and brute stack displays. Full onboard processing is
`possible if required and provides the ultimate QC tool at a cost. Onboard processing is the fastest way
`to process data and works well in some areas but should generally be avoided as a mechanism for
`providing a final data since there is too much to go wrong.
`
`The secret of successful onboard processing is to do your homework in advance and to know the
`processing sequence ahead of time. Usually the contractor is given examples of existing velocity fields,
`sections and data at least a month in advance of the survey. The contractor will then start to form a
`sequence on their system and start to resource the hardware required ideally involving the people
`onboard who will be doing the work. Source signatures and other obvious things are often a sticking
`point at the last minute. The velocity fields are critical if moveout based demultiple is to be attempted
`onboard.
`
`Preprocessing onboard (e.g. designature, temporal/spatial trace reduction, navigation merge, trace
`edit/QC) and regular helicopter drops can often achieve a similar turnaround, can cost less and produce
`better quality than full onboard processing. Sometimes for speed the onboard preprocessed data is taken
`through a fasttrack sequence e.g. radon demultiple, 3D DMO stack and the data migrated onshore and
`loaded to a workstation. This would typically take 4 weeks from the end of survey. In practise the
`interpreter prefers to wait for the final volume since otherwise the interpretation is done twice. If the 3D
`is just being shot to confirm a well location which is already pretty firm then onboard processing may be
`a viable route. Note the data may have to be reprocessed.
`
`The contractor should ensure that someone senior onboard is responsible for the processing. It is
`important for the oil company representatives (including interpreter) to attend the mobilisation meeting
`(maybe even ride the boat for a few weeks) to make sure the targets are defined and that everyone knows
`who everyone is. As ever with contractors you are in the hands of the people doing the job. Western
`Geophysical have a system where the data is processed onboard remotely by a team based onshore. This
`hybrid method may be quite attractive to some.
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`Most vessels can now ship off example sections or screendumps by email for decision making back at
`base (either contractor/oil company or both) and staff should be encouraged to do this if there is time.
`The ideal processing situation is to shoot the first line and then go down for weather/technical downtime
`for a week !! Velocity files can also be easily compressed and shipped if these are being picked onboard.
`For this reason it may not be required to put a fulltime QC onboard. The onboard seismic rep should in
`any case be pretty knowledgeable about processing.
`
`The contractors will often try and cut corners. For instance GECO used to process everything at 16 bit
`onboard and stored intermediate data in their format on exabyte cartridge. The contract should specify
`that a SEGY prestack archive (e.g. after RADON demultiple) should be produced onboard on 3590
`cartridges. This gives a good starting point when the reprocessing inevitably has to take place.
`Contractors will also try and cheat on the number of parabolas used for RADON demultiple, often
`limiting to the fold or less. The fold + 20% (or some other number) should be specified in the contract.
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`IDENTIFYING REFLECTIONS AND NOISE TYPES
`
`The shot records in the previous figures are used to identify principal reflections of interest, including
`various sources of noise. Click here to obtain an enlarged display of a raw shot record and here to display
`the shot after t2 gain correction with events identified. When data is recorded raw noise files are usually
`acquired at the beginning and end of line. A noise file is created by recording a shot but not firing the
`source. The noise file in the previous figures clearly shows noise generated by tug at the front end and far
`(from tailbuoy) end of the streamer. This low frequency noise would typically be removed by a
`combination of bandpass filtering and DMO. Noise files should be removed (by editing) before
`processing. Field data are also acquired with several auxiliary traces which would be removed (by
`editing) prior to processing. The near channel is usually numbered 240 but in this instance is numbered 1.
`In the figure the direct arrival does not arrive at time zero because there is a recording delay built into the
`system which should be removed before processing begins. Observers logs should detail channel
`numbers, noise files, auxiliary traces and start of data delays. The second figure identifies several events
`on the gain corrected shot. Yilmaz contains forty shot records from around the world and indicates data
`and noise types.
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`ADVANCED TOPICS
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`LAND ACQUISITION
`SUBSEA or SEABOTTOM ACQUISITION
`PLANNING A 2D SURVEY
`PLANNING A 3D SURVEY
`ARRAY DESIGN
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