THE WHOLE INTERNET
`
`UsER’s GUIDE 8: CATALOG
`
`SECOND EDITION
`
`ED KROL
`
`O’REILLY 8'; ASSOCIATES, INC.
`105 MORRIS STREET, SUITE A
`SEBASTOPOL CA 95472
`
`(800) 998-9938 0 (707) 829-0515
`EMAIL: nuts@oroz.com OR uunet/om./nuts
`
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`

`
`The Whole Internet User’s Guide & Catalog
`by Ed Krol
`Copyright © 1992, 1994 O’Reilly & Associates, Inc. All rights reserved.
`Printed in the United States of America.
`
`Editor: Mike Loukides
`
`Production Editor: Ellen Siever
`
`Printing History:
`
`September 1992: First Edition.
`
`November 1992: Minor corrections.
`
`February 1995: Minor corrections.
`
`May 1995:
`
`Minor corrections.
`
`Minor corrections.
`July 1993:
`November 1993: Minor corrections. Updated Resource Catalog.
`
`April 1994:
`
`Second Edition.
`
`November 1994: Minor corrections.
`a
`
`Nutshell Handbook and the Nutshell Handbook logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly &
`Associates, Inc.
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`Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed
`as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly 8; Associates, Inc. was
`aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.
`While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher assumes no
`responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information
`
`contained herein.
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`(M?
`This book is printed on acid—free paper with 50% recycled content, 10-15% post—consumer waste.
`O’Reilly & Associates is committed to using paper with the highest recycled content available
`
`consistent with high quality.
`
`ISBN: 166592-065-5
`
`[3/95]
`
`

`
`The Whole Internet Users Guide :9 Catalog
`
`you have something that’s friendly and useful. Well,
`work our way up.
`
`let’s start at the bottom and
`
`Packet Switched Networks
`
`When you try to imagine what the Internet is and how it operates, it is natural to
`think of the telephone system. After all, they are both electronic, they both let you
`open a connection and transfer information, and the Internet is primarily com-
`posed of dedicated telephone lines. Unfortunately, this is the wrong picture, and
`causes many misunderstandings about how the Internet operates. The telephone
`network is a circuit switched network. When you make a call, you get a piece of
`the network dedicated to you. Even if you aren’t using it (for example, if you are
`put on hold), your piece of the network is unavailable to others wishing to do real
`work. This leads to underutilization of a very expensive resource, the network.
`
`. .)
`A better model for the Internet is the U.S. Postal Service. (Don’t get worried. .
`The Postal Service is a pac/eet switched network. You have no dedicated piece of
`the network. What you want to send is mixed together with everyone else’s stuff,
`put in a pipe, transferred to another Post Office, and sorted out again. Although
`the technologies are completely different, the Postal Service is a surprisingly accu-
`rate analogy; we’ll continue to use it throughout this chapter.
`
`Tbe Internet Protocol (IP)
`
`A wire can get data from one place to another. However, you already know that
`the Internet can get data to many different places, distributed all over the world.
`How does that happen“?
`
`The different pieces of the Internet are connected by a set of computers called
`routers, which connect networks together. These networks are sometimes Ether-
`nets, sometimes token rings, and sometimes telephone lines, as shown in Figure
`5~1.
`
`The telephone lines and Ethernets are equivalent to the trucks and planes of the
`Postal Service. They are the means by which mail is moved from place to place.
`The routers are postal substations; they make decisions about how to route data
`(“packets”), just like a postal substation decides how to route envelopes contain~
`ing mail. Each substation or router does not have a connection to every other one.
`If you put an envelope in the mail in Dixville Notch, New Hampshire, addressed
`to Boonville, California,
`the Post Office doesn’t reserve a plane from New
`Hampshire to California to carry it. The local Post Office sends the envelope to a
`substation; the substation sends it to another substation; and so on, until it reaches
`the destination. That is, each substation only needs to know what connections are
`available, and what is the best “next hop” to get a packet closer to its destination.
`Similarly with the Internet: a router looks at where your data is going and decides
`where to send it next. It decides which pipe is best and uses it.
`
`How does the Net know where your data is going? If you want to send a letter,
`you can’t just drop the typed letter into the mailbox and expect delivery. You need
`to put the paper into an envelope, write an address on the envelope, and stamp it.
`
`24
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`
`How the Internet Works
`
`5/Tllellnrernet
`
`Figure 34: Internet /mrdu/are
`
`Just as the Post Office has rules that define how its network vvorks, there are rules
`that govern how the Internet operates. The rules are called protocols. The Internet
`Protocol (IP) takes care of addressing, or making sure that the routers know what
`to do with your data when it arrives. Sticking with our Post Office analogy, the
`Internet Protocol works just like an envelope (Figure 5-2).
`
`
`
`Ta:128.174.5.6
`
`Figure 3-2: IP envelopes
`
`
`
`25
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`The Whole Irzternez‘ User’s Guide 6 Catalog
`
`Some addressing information goes at the beginning of your message; this informa-
`tion gives the network enough information to deliver the packet of data.
`Internet addresses consist of four numbers, each less than 256. When written out,
`the numbers are separated by periods, like this:
`192.l12.36.5
`l28.l74.5.6
`
`(Don't worry; you don’t need to remember numbers like these to use the net-
`work.) The address is actually made up of multiple parts. Since the Internet is a
`network of networks, the beginning of the address tells the Internet routers what
`network you are part of. The right end of the address tells that network which
`computer or 1905;‘ should receive the packet.’-“ Every computer on the Internet has a
`unique address under this scheme. Again, the Postal Service provides a good anal-
`ogy. Consider the address “SO Kelly Road, Hamden, CT.” The “Hamden: CT” por-
`tion is like a network address; it gets the envelope to the right local Post Office,
`the Post Office that knows about streets in a certain area. “50 Kelly Road” is like
`the host address; it identifies a particular mailbox within the Post Offices service
`area. The Postal Service has done its job when it has delivered the mail to the right
`local office, and when that local office has put it into the right mailbox. Similarly,
`the Internet has done its job when its routers have gotten data to the right net-
`work, and when that local network has given the data to the right computer, or
`host, on the network.
`
`information sent
`For a lot of practical reasons (notably hardware limitations),
`across IP networks is broken up into bite—sized pieces, called packets. The informa-
`tion within a packet is usually between one and about 1500 characters long. This
`prevents any one user of the network from monopolizing the network, allowing
`everyone to get a fair shot. It also means that when the network is overloaded, its
`behavior gets slightly worse for all
`its users:
`it doesn’t stop dead while a few
`heavy users monopolize it.
`
`One of the amazing things about the Internet is that, on a basic level, IP is all you
`need to participate. It wouldn’t be very friendly, but you could get work done if
`you were clever enough. As long as your data is put in an IP envelope, the net-
`work has all the information it needs to get your packet from your computer to its
`destination. Now, however, we need to deal with several problems:
`I Most information transfers are longer than 1500 characters. You would be dis-
`appointed, indeed, if the Post Office would only carry postcards, but refused
`anything larger.
`I Things can go wrong. The Post Office occasionally loses a letter; networks
`sometimes lose packets, or damagethem in transit. Unlike the Post Office,
`we’ll see that the Internet can deal with these problems successfully.
`
`’-“Where the network portion ends and the host portion begins is a bit complicated. It varies from ad-
`dress to address based on an agreement between adjacent routers. Fortunately, as a user you’ll never
`need to worry about this; it only makes a difference when you're setting up a network.
`
`26
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`

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`The Whole Internet User’s Guide 6 Catalog
`
`news
`
`are still many sites that participate in USENET in this fashion.) The seven major
`news categories are:
`comp
`Computer science and related topics. This includes computer sci-
`ence proper, software sources, information on hardware and soft-
`ware systems, and topics of general interest.
`Groups concerned with the news network and news software.
`This
`includes
`the important groups news.newusers.quesrz'ons
`(questions
`from new users)
`and news.cmnoLmce.newuser5
`(important
`information for new users).
`If you are new to
`USENET, you should read these for a while.
`Groups discussing hobbies, recreational activities, and the arts.
`Groups discussing scientific research and applications (other than
`computer science). This includes newsgroups for many of the
`established scientific and engineering disciplines, including some «
`social sciences.
`
`_
`
`rec
`sci
`
`soc
`
`toll/e
`
`misc
`
`Groups that address social issues, where social can mean politi-
`cally relevant or socializing, or anything in between.
`The talk groups are a forum for debate on controversial topics.
`The discussions tend to be long—winded and unresolved. This is
`where to go if you want to argue about religion.
`Anything that doesn’t fit into the above categories, or that fits into
`several categories.
`It’s worth knowing about miscjobs (jobs
`wanted and offered) and miscforsale (just what it says).
`
`Servers may also have newsgroups they create ‘locally. Any server administrator
`can create whatever groups he or she likes, corresponding to the interests of the
`server’s users. These might include discussions of campus events, local network
`outages, and employee announcements. Although these are local groups, they can
`still be passed to other servers that want to carry them. In a large corporation,
`each department might have its own news server; the servers would be able to
`pass the employee—announcements group between themselves. Of course,
`the
`servers wouldn’t pass groups like this to the outside world. Local newsgroups are
`named by the local server’s administrator, who must choose names that don’t con-
`flict with other newsgroups.
`Now we start getting to the confusing part. To a user, the news system looks like
`Figure 8-1. In actuality,
`it
`is implemented as shown in Figure 8-2. A server’s
`administrator makes bilateral agreements with other administrators to transfer cer-
`tain newsgroups, usually over the Internet, between each other. A site that pro—
`vides your server with one or more newsgroups is known as a newsfeed. Certain
`servers will provide feeds for some groups, other servers for other groups. A
`server administrator may make any arrangements for news feeds from any servers
`that are necessary to provide the set of groups to be offered. Over the years, this
`
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`. ll.nl
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`rI
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`
`
`CHAPTER THIRTEEN
`
`THE WQRLD WIDE
`
`WEB
`
`Getting Started
`
`The Web and Gopher
`
`Navigating the Web With www
`
`Navigating the Web With xmosaic
`
`Working With Other Services
`
`Setting Up Your Own Home Page
`
`Hints for Mosaic Users
`Where the Web is Going
`
`
`
`he World Wide Web, or WWW, is the newest information service to arrive
`on the Internet. The Web is based on a technology called hypertext. Most of
`the development has taken place at CERN, the European Particle Physics
`Laboratory; but it would be a mistake to see the Web as a tool designed by and
`for physicists. While physicists may have paid for its initial development, it’s one
`of the most flexible tools——probably the most flexible tool-—for prowling around
`the Internet. The Web and its tools are still under development, so don’t be sur-
`prised if they don’t work as you expect. They’re certainly worth playing with, and
`will probably become the predominant method for accessing the Internet in the
`next few years.
`
`To try the Web, telnet to inf0.cern.ch. This will automatically drop you into a pub-
`lic—access client program (or browser,
`to use the Web’s terrninology).* This is a
`line—oriented browser that will work with a traditional
`terminal. Several other
`browsers are available; if you decide to install your own (and that’s highly recom-
`mended if you want to use the Web frequently), you can choose between the line-
`oriented browser, and several browsers for the X Window System,
`the NeXT
`workstations,
`the Macintosh, and PCs.’r As of this writing,
`the most advanced
`browser available is called Mosaic.
`It works on UNIX under the X Windows sys-
`tem (where it’s called xmosaic), the Macintosh, and Microsoft Windows.
`
`*More precisely, a browser is any program for reading hypertext. Web clients are basically hypertext
`readers, so they're called browsers.
`
`the anonymous FTP site inf0.cern.ch. Look in the directory
`TOIIE good software source is
`pub/www/bin; you'll see directories for several different machines. In any of these directories, the file
`www is the line—oriented browser; erwise is an X—based browser. cello is a browser for Windows. Mo-
`saic browsers are also available at CERN, but
`the best place to look is at NCSA’s FTP archive:
`ftp.ncsa.uiuc.edu.
`
`28 7