Samsung Exhibit 1038
`Samsung v. Affinity
`IPR2014-01181
`Page 00001
`
`

`
`Guide”) which was received by the library on December 8, 1998, and entered
`
`into the library’s catalog and made avaiiable to the pubiic shortly thereafter.
`
`5. The scanned image of Batteries Guide attached as Exhibit A was produced
`
`from the 1ibraiy’s copy, which was maintained by the University of Wisconsin-
`
`Madison in its ordinary course of business.
`
`I declare under penalty of perjury that the foregoing is true and correct.
`
`Executed on November 20, 2014 in Madison, Wisconsin.
`
`.-/L/I \ ¢,Q,\(,«z.‘)— Ax (;g*fl_W_fiM____MM
`
`Michael L. Cohen.
`
`Page 00002
`
`

`
`
`
`EXHIBIT A
`
`
`
`
`Page 00003
`
`

`
`LLS. Department nfJus1icu
`Office of Justice Prngrnn1s
`Ncm‘om:! 1'n.w:'m:c* n_,f.!:.-.m'ce
`
`National Institute of Justice
`
`- Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program
`
`NEW TECHNOLOGY BATTERIES GUIDE
`
`NIJ Guide 200-98
`
`us. Depository Copy -
`Do not discard
`.
`Univ. of Wise
`
`Law Library
`
`Page 00004
`
`

`
`ABOUT THE LAW ENEORCEMENTAND CORRECTIONS STANDARDS
`AND TESTING PROGRAM
`
`The Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program is sponsored by the Office of Science and
`Technology of the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), U.S. Department of Justice. The program responds to the mandate
`of the Justice System Improvement Act of 1979, which created NIJ and directed it to encourage research and develop-
`ment to improve the criminal justice system and to disseminate the results to Federal, State, and local agencies.
`The Law Enforcement and Corrections Standards and Testing Program is an applied research effort that determines
`the technological needs of justice system agencies, sets minimum performance standards for specific devices, tests
`commercially available equipment against those standards, and disseminates the standards and the test results to criminal
`justice agencies nationally and internationally.
`The program operates through:
`The Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Advisory Council (LECTAC) consisting of nationally recog-
`nized criminal justice practitioners from Federal, State, and local agencies, which assesses technological needs and sets
`priorities for research programs and items to be evaluated and tested.
`The Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which
`develops voluntary national performance standards for compliance testing to ensure that individual items of equipment
`are suitable for use by criminal justice, agencies. The standards are based upon laboratory testing and evaluation of
`representative samples of each item of equipment to determine the key attributes, develop test methods, and establish
`minimum performance requirements for each essential attribute. In addition to the highly technical standards, OLES
`also produces technical reports and user guidelines that explain in nontechnical terms the capabilities of available
`equipment.
`'
`The National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center (NLECTC), operated by a grantee, which
`supervises a national compliance testing program conducted by independent laboratories. The standards developed by
`OLES serve as performance benchmarks against which commercial equipment is measured. The facilities, personnel,
`and testing capabilities of the independent laboratories are evaluated by OLES prior to testing each item of equipment,
`and OLES helps the Technology Center staff review and analyze data. Test results are published in Equipment
`Performance Reports designed to help justice system procurement officials make informed purchasing decisions.
`Publications are available at no charge from the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center.
`Some documents are also available online t.hrough the Internet/World Wide Web. To request a document or additional
`information, call 800-248-2742 or 301-519-5060, or write:
`
`National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center
`P.O. Box 1160
`
`Rockville, MD 20849-1160
`E-mail: asknlectc@nlectc.com
`World Wide Web address: http://www.nlectc.org
`
`The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of
`Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assis-
`tance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Juvenile Justice and
`Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime.
`
`Page 00005
`
`

`
`U.S. Department of Justice
`Office of Justice Programs
`National Institute of Justice
`
`
`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`NIJ Guide 200-98
`
`William J. Ingram
`Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
`Boulder, CO 80303
`
`Prepared for:
`National Institute of Justice
`Office of Science and Technology
`U.S. Department of Justice
`Washington, DC 20531
`
`US REGIONAL
`DEPOSITORY COPY
`
`DEC 0 3 1998
`
`UNIV. OF WIS.
`|J\W LIBRARY
`
`U3 D9D°53!0fy Copy
`?1(:li?I0tO:'51:0”
`Lavjubraly
`
`October 1998
`
`Page 00006
`
`

`
`National Institute of Justice
`
`Jeremy Travis
`Director
`
`The Technical effort to ‘develop this Guide was conducted
`under Interagency Agreement 94-U-R-O04
`Project No. 97-027-CTT.
`
`*4 5’ ‘
`
`This Guide was prepared by the Office of Law
`Enforcement Standards (OLES) of the
`National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
`under the direction of A. George Lieberman,
`Program Manager for Communications Systems,
`and Kathleen M. Higgins, Director of OLES.
`The work resulting in this guide was sponsored by
`the National Institute of Justice, David G. Boyd,
`Director, Office of Science and Technology.
`
`Page 00007
`
`

`
`New Tccimnlozrx Batteries Guide
`
`FOREWORD
`
`The Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES) of the National Institute of Standards
`and Technology furnishes technical support to the National Institute of Justice program to
`strengthen law enforcement and criminal justice in the United States. OLES’s function is to
`conduct research that will assist law enforcement and criminal justice agencies in the selection
`
`and procurement of quality equipment.
`
`OLES is: (1) subjecting existing equipment to laboratory testing and evaluation, and (2)
`conducting research leading to the development of several series of documents, including
`national standards, user guides, and technical reports.
`
`This document covers research conducted by OLES under the sponsorship of the National
`Institute of Justice. Additional reports as well as other documents are being issued under the
`OLES program in the areas of protective clothing and equipment, communications systems,
`emergency equipment, investigative aids, security systems, vehicles, weapons, and analytical
`techniques and standard reference materials used by the forensic community.
`
`Technical comments and suggestions concerning this report are invited from all interested
`parties. They may be addressed to the Director, Office of Law Enforcement Standards, National
`Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
`
`David G. Boyd, Director
`Office of Science and Technology
`National Institute of Justice
`
`Page 00008
`
`

`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`Page 00009
`
`

`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`BACKGROUND
`
`The Office of Law Enforcement Standards
`
`conventional format, that details the
`
`(OLES) was established by the National
`Institute of Justice (NIJ) to provide focus on two
`major objectives: (1) to find existing equipment
`which can be purchased today, and (2) to
`develop new law-enforcement equipment which
`can be made available as soon as possible. A
`part of OLES’s mission is to become thoroughly
`familiar with existing equipment, to evaluate its
`performance by means of objective laboratory
`tests, to develop and
`improve these
`methods of test, to
`
`develop performance
`standards for
`
`selected equipment
`items, and to prepare
`guidelines for the
`selection and use of
`
`performance that the equipment is required to
`give, and describes test methods by which its
`actual performance can be measured. These
`requirements are technical, and are stated in
`terms directly related to the equipment’s use.
`The basic purposes of a standard are (l) to be a
`reference in procurement documents created by
`purchasing officers who wish to specify
`equipment of the “standard” quality, and (2) to
`identify objectively
`equipment of
`acceptable
`performance.
`
`A standard is not intended to inform
`and guide the reader; that is the
`function of a guideline
` inform and guide the
`reader; that is the
`
`Note that a standard
`is not intended to
`
`this equipment. All of these activities are
`directed toward providing law enforcement
`agencies with assistance in making good
`equipment selections and acquisitions in
`accordance with their own requirements.
`
`As the OLES program has matured, there has
`been a gradual shift in the objectives of the
`OLES projects. The initial emphasis on the
`development of standards has decreased, and the
`emphasis on the development of guidelines has
`increased. For the significance of this shift in
`emphasis to be appreciated, the precise
`definitions of the words “standard” and
`
`“guideline" as used in this context must be
`clearly understood.
`
`A “standard” for a particular item of equipment
`is understood to be a formal document, in a
`
`function of a “guideline.” Guidelines are written
`in non-technical language and are addressed to
`the potential user of the equipment. They
`include a general discussion of the equipment,
`its important performance attributes, the various
`models currently on the market, objective test
`data where available, and any other information
`that might help the reader make a rational
`selection among the various options or
`alternatives available to him or her.
`
`This battery guide is provided to inform the
`reader of the latest technology related to battery
`composition, battery usage, and battery charging
`techniques.
`
`Kathleen Higgins
`National Institute of Standards and Technology
`March 27, 1997
`
`Page 00010
`
`

`
`New’Techno1ogx Batteries Guide
`
`Page 00011
`
`

`
`New Tcchnoloey Batteries Guide
`
`CONTENTS
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`Page
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`2.3.7 Nickel-Zinc (Ni-Z)
`2.3.8 Lithium and Lithium Ion .
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`2.4 Specialty Batteries (“Button" and Miniature
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`2.4.2 Silver Oxide
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`CONTENTS .
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`2.4.3 Mercury Oxide .
`2.5 Other Batteries .
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`2.5.1 Nickel-Hydrogen (Ni-H) .
`2.5.2 Thermal Batteries .
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`1. Fundamentals of Battery Technology .
`1.1 What is a Battery? .
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`1.2 How Does a Battery Work? .
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`1.4 Primary Battery .
`1.5 Secondary Battery .
`1.6 Battery Labels .
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`2. Available Battery Types .
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`2.5.3 Super Capacitor .
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`2.5.4 The Potato Battery .
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`2.1.2 Wet vs. Dry .
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`2.2.2 Sealed vs. Flooded .
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`2.2.3 Deep-Cycle Batteries .
`2.2.4 Battery Categories for Vehicular
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`3. Performance, Economics and Tradeoffs .
`3.1 Energy Densities .
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`3.2 Energy per Mass .
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`3.9 Capacity Testing .
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`3.10 Battery Technology Comparison .
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`4. Selecting the Right Battery for the Application . 23
`4.1 Battery Properties .
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`4.2 Environmental Concerns .
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`4.3 Standardization .
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`4.5 Mobile Radios .
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`4.6 Cellular Phones and PCS Phones .
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`4.7 Laptop Computers .
`4.8 Camcorders .
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`4.9 Summary .
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`5. Battery Handling and Maintenance .
`5.1 Battery Dangers .
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`5.2 Extending Battery Life .
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`Lvii
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`2.3.1 Zinc-carbon (Z-C) .
`2.3.2 Zinc—Manganese Dioxide Alkaline Cells
`(“Alkaline Batteries”) .
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`2.3.3 Rechargeable Alkaline Batteries
`9
`2.3.4 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) .
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`2.3.5 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni—MH)
`10
`2.3.6 Nickel-Iron (Ni-I)
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`Page 00012
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`Nevv Technology Batteries Guide
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`6. Battery Chargers and Adapters .
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`6.1 Battery Chargers .
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`6.2 Charge Rates .
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`6.3 Charging Techniques .
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`6.4 Charging Lead-Acid Batteries .
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`6.5 Charging Ni-Cd Batteries .
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`6.6 Timed-Charge Charging .
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`6.7 Pulsed Charge-Discharge Chargers .
`6.8 Charging Button Batteries .
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`6.9 Internal Chargers .
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`6.10 Battery Testers .
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`6.11 “Smart” Batteries .
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`6.12 End of Life .
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`6.13 Battery Adapters .
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`7. Products and Suppliers .
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`7.1 Battery Manufacturers .
`7.1.1 Battery Engineering .
`7.1.2 Duracell .
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`List of Figures
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`Page
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`Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of a galvanic cell.
`Figure 2. Energy densities, W-h/kg, of various battery
`types (adapted from NAVSO P-3676).
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`. 15
`Figure 3. Energy densities, W-h/L, of various battery
`types (adapted from NAVSO P-3676).
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`Figure 4. Flat discharge curve vs. sloping discharge
`curve.
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`. 17
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`1
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`Figure 5. Performance comparison of primary and
`secondary alkaline and Ni-Cd batteries (adapted
`from Derign Note: Renewable Reusable Alkaline
`Batteries).
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`. 23
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`List of Tables
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`7.1.3 Eveready .
`7.1.4 Rayovac .
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`8. A Glossary of Battery Terms
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`9. Bibliography .. .
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`. .. 51
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`P336
`Table 1. The Electromotive Series for Some Battery
`. 2
`Components .
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`Table 2. Various Popular Household-Battery Sizes . 8
`Table 3. Battery Technology Comparison (adapted from
`Design Note: Renewable Reusable Alkaline
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`Batteries)
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`Table 4. A Comparison of Several Popular Battery
`Types
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`Table 5. Recommended Battery Types for Various
`Usage Conditions .
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`Table 6. Typical Usage of Portable
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`Telecommunications Equipment.
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`Table 7. Charge Rate Descriptions .
`Table 8. Some On-Line Information Available via the
`World Wide Web .
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`. 25
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`List of Equations
`
`Page
`
`Equation 1. The chemical reaction in a lead-acid
`. 6
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`battery.
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`Equation 2. The chemical reaction in a Leclanché cell.
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`Equation 3. The chemical reaction in a nickel-
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`cadmium battery.
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`Equation 4. The chemical reaction in a lithium-
`manganese dioxide cell.
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`. 9
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`ll
`
`Page 00013
`
`

`
`COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`ampere
`alternating current
`amplitude modulation
`candela
`centimeter
`chemically pure
`cycle per second
`day
`decibel
`direct current
`
`degree Celsius
`degree Fahrenheit
`diameter
`electromotive force
`
`equation
`farad
`footcandle
`
`‘ figure
`frequency modulation
`foot
`
`foot per second
`acceleration/gravity
`gram
`grain
`
`henry
`hour
`high frequency
`hertz (c/s)
`inside diameter
`inch
`infrared
`joule
`lambert
`liter
`
`.
`
`'.
`'
`'
`
`pound
`pound—force
`pound-force inch
`lumen
`
`-'
`
`logarithm (natural)
`logarithm (common)
`molar
`
`meter
`minute
`millimeter
`
`mile per hour
`meter per second
`newton
`newton meter
`
`'
`
`mph
`mls
`N
`N-m
`
`nanometer
`number
`outside diameter
`ohm
`page
`pascal
`probable error
`pages
`part per million
`quart
`
`radian
`radio frequency
`relative humidity
`second
`
`standard deviation
`section
`standing wave ratio
`
`ultrahigh frequency
`ultraviolet
`volt
`
`very high frequency
`watt
`wavelength
`weight
`
`.
`
`.
`
`.
`.
`
`.
`
`uhf
`uv
`V
`
`vhf
`W
`A
`wt
`
`area=unit’ (e.g., ft’, in’, etc.); volume=unit’ (e.g., ftz. ma, etc.)
`
`PREFIXES
`
`deci 00")
`centi (104)
`rnilli (104)
`micro (10'°)
`nano (109)
`pico (10'”)
`
`da
`h
`k
`M
`G
`T
`
`deka (10)
`hecto (102)
`kilo (103)
`mega (106)
`giga (109)
`tera (10")
`
`COMMON CONVERSIONS (See ASTM E380)
`
`ft/sx0.3048000=m/s
`ft><0.3048=m
`ft'lbfx1.355818=J
`
`gr><0.0647989l =g
`inx2.54=cm
`
`kWh><3600000=J
`
`lbx0.4535924=kg
`lbf><4.448222=N
`lbf/ftxl4.59390=N/m
`
`lbf-inx0.l129848=N'-m
`lbf/in‘x6894.757=Pa
`
`mph1.609344=km/h
`qtxO.9463529=L
`
`(T.F—32)x5/9=T.C
`Temperature:
`Temperature: (T.c><C9/5)+32=T.F
`
`Page 00014
`
`

`
`New '-Fechnologx Batteries Guide
`
`Page 00015
`
`

`
`1. Fundamentals of Battery Technology
`
`
`
`1.1 WHAT IS A BATTERY?
`
`A battery, in concept, can be any device that
`stores energy for later use. A rock, pushed to
`the top of a hill, can be considered a kind of
`battery, since‘ the energy used to push it up the
`hill (chemical energy, from muscles or
`combustion engines) is converted and stored
`as potential kinetic energy at the top of the
`hill. Later, that energy is released as kinetic
`and thermal energy when the rock rolls down
`the hill.
`
`wires connect the electrodes to an electrical
`
`load (a light bulb in this case). The metal in
`the anode (the negative terminal) oxidizes
`(i.e., it “rusts”), releasing negatively charged
`electrons and positively charged metal ions.
`The electrons travel through the wire (and the
`electrical load) to the cathode (the positive
`terminal). The electrons combine with the
`material in the cathode. This combination
`
`process is called reduction, and it releases a
`negatively charged metal-oxide ion. At the
`interface with the
`
`electrolyte, this ion
`causes a water
`\
`
`molecule to split
`into a hydrogen ion
`and a hydroxide
`ion. The positively
`charged hydrogen
`ion combines with
`
`the negatively
`charged metal-
`oxide ion and
`becomes inert. The
`
`Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of a galvanic cell.
`
`negatively charged _
`hydroxide ion
`flows through the
`electrolyte to the
`anode where it combines with the positively
`charged metal ion, forming a water molecule
`and a metal-oxide molecule.
`
`Common use of the
`
`word, “battery,”
`however, is limited
`to an electro-
`chemical device
`that converts
`
`chemical energy
`into electricity, by
`use of a galvanic
`cell. A galvanic cell
`is a fairly simple
`device consisting of
`two electrodes (an
`anode and a
`
`cathode) and an
`electrolyte solution. Batteries consist of one or
`more galvanic cells.
`
`1.2 How Dons A BATTERY WORK?
`
`Figure 1 shows a simple galvanic cell.
`Electrodes (two plates, each made from a
`different kind of metal or metallic compound)
`are placed in an electrolyte solution. External
`
`In effect, metal ions from the anode will
`“dissolve” into the electrolyte solution while
`hydrogen molecules from the electrolyte are
`deposited onto the cathode.
`
`j
`l
`
`Page 00016
`
`

`
`New Technolo Batteries Guide
`
`When the anode is fully oxidized or the
`cathode is fully reduced, the chemical reaction
`will stop and the battery is considered to be
`discharged.
`
`Recharging a battery is usually a matter of
`externally applying a voltage across the plates
`to reverse the chemical process. Some
`chemical reactions, however, are difficult or
`
`impossible to reverse. Cells with irreversible
`reactions are commonly known as primary
`cells, while cells with reversible reactions are
`known as secondary cells. It is dangerous to
`attempt to recharge primary cells.
`
`The amount of voltage and current that a
`galvanic cell produces is directly related to the
`types of materials used in the electrodes and
`electrolyte. The length of time the cell can
`produce that voltage and current is related to
`the amount of active material in the cell and
`
`the cell’s design.
`
`Every metal or metal compound has an
`electromotive force, which is the propensity of
`the metal to gain or lose electrons in relation
`to another material. Compounds with a
`positive electromotive force will make good
`anodes and those with a negative force will
`make good cathodes. The larger the difference
`between the electromotive forces of the anode
`
`and cathode, the greater the amount of energy
`that can be produced by the cell. Table 1
`shows the electromotive force of some
`
`common battery components.
`
`Table 1. The Electromotive Series for Some
`
`Battery Components
`
`Anode Materials
`(Listed from worst
`[most positive] to best
`[most negative])
`
`Cathode Materials
`
`(Listed from best
`[most positive] to
`worst [most negative])
`
`Ferrate
`
`Iron Oxide
`
`Cuprous Oxide
`
`Iodate
`
`Cupric Oxide
`
`Mercuric Oxide
`
`Cobaltic Oxide
`
`Manganese Dioxide
`
`Lead Dioxide
`
`Silver Oxide
`
`M omen
`Nickel Oxyhydroxide
`Nickel Dioxide
`Silver Peroxide
`
`Permanganate
`
`Bromate
`
`Over the years, battery specialists have
`experimented with many different
`combinations of material and have generally
`tried to balance the potential energy output of
`a battery with the costs of manufacturing the
`battery. Other factors, such as battery weight,
`
`Page 00017
`
`

`
`shelf life, and environmental impact, also
`enter into a battery’s design.
`
`1.3 GALVANIC CELLS vs. BATTERIES
`
`From earlier discussion, we know that a
`
`battery is one or more galvanic cells connected
`in series or in parallel.
`
`A battery composed of two 1.5 V galvanic
`cells connected in series, for example, will
`produce 3 V. A typical 9 V battery is simply
`six 1.5 V cells connected in series. Such a
`
`series battery, however, will produce a current
`that is the equivalent to just one of the
`galvanic cells.
`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`Battery manufacturers recommend that
`primary batteries not be recharged. Although
`attempts at recharging a primary battery will
`occasionally succeed (usually with a
`diminished capacity), it is more likely that the
`battery will simply fail to hold any charge, will
`leak electrolyte onto the battery charger, or
`will overheat and cause a fire. It is unwise and
`
`dangerous to recharge a primary battery.
`
`1.5 SECONDARY BATTERY
`
`A secondary battery is commonly known as a
`rechargeable battery. It is usually designed to
`have a lifetime of between 100 and 1000
`
`recharge cycles, depending on the composite
`materials.
`
`A battery
`composed of two
`1.5 V galvanic cells
`connected in
`
`parallel, on the
`other hand, will
`
`A battery is one or more galvanic
`cells connected in series or in
`
`parallel
`
`Secondary batteries
`are, generally, more
`cost effective over
`
`time than primary
`batteries, since the
`
`still produce a
`voltage of 1.5 V, but the current provided can
`be double the current that just one cell would
`create. Such a battery can provide current
`twice as long as a single cell.
`
`Many galvanic cells can be thus connected to
`create a battery with almost any current at any
`voltage level.
`
`1.4 PRIMARY BATTERY
`
`A primary battery is a battery that is designed
`to be cycled (fully discharged) only once and
`then discarded. Although primary batteries are
`often made from the same base materials as
`
`secondary (rechargeable) batteries, the design
`and manufacturing processes are not the same.
`
`battery can be
`recharged and reused. A single discharge cycle
`of a primary battery, however, will provide
`more current for a longer period of time than a
`single discharge cycle of an equivalent
`secondary battery.
`
`1.6 BATTERY LABELS
`
`The American National Standards Institute
`
`(ANSI) Standard, ANSI Cl8.lM-1992, lists
`several battery features that must be listed on a
`battery’s label. They are:
`
`El Manufacturer -- The name of ‘the battery
`manufacturer.
`
`El ANSI Number -- The ANSI/NEDA
`
`number of the battery.
`El Date -- The month and year that the battery
`was manufactured or the month and year that
`
`Page 00018
`
`

`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`'
`
`the battery “expires” (i.e., is no longer
`guaranteed by the manufacturer).
`El Voltage -- The nominal battery voltage.
`IE Polarity -- The positive and negative
`terminals. The tenninals must be clearly
`marked.
`
`IE] Warnings -- Other warnings and cautions
`related to battery usage and disposal.
`
`Page 00019
`
`

`
`2. Available Battery Types
`
`2.] GENERAL
`
`2.1.1 Acid vs. Alkaline
`
`Batteries are often classified by the type of
`electrolyte used in their construction. There
`are three common classifications: acid, mildly
`acid, and alkaline.
`
`Acid-based batteries often use sulphuric acid
`as the major component of the electrolyte.
`Automobile batteries are acid—based. The
`electrolyte used in mildly acidic batteries is far
`less corrosive than typical acid-based batteries
`and usually includes a variety of salts that
`produce the desired acidity level. Inexpensive
`household batteries are mildly acidic batteries.
`
`Alkaline batteries typically use sodium
`hydroxide or potassium hydroxide as the main
`component of the electrolyte. Alkaline
`batteries are often used in applications where
`long-lasting, high-energy output is needed,
`such as cellular phones, portable CD players,
`radios, pagers, and flash cameras.
`
`2.1.2 Wet vs. Dry
`
`“Wet” cells refer to galvanic cells where the
`electrolyte is liquid in form and is allowed to
`flow freely within the cell casing. Wet
`batteries are often sensitive to the orientation
`
`of the battery. For example, if a wet cell is
`oriented such that a gas pocket accumulates
`around one of the electrodes, the cell will not
`
`produce current. Most automobile batteries are
`wet cells.
`
`“Dry” cells are cells that use a solid or
`powdery electrolyte. These kind of electrolytes
`use the ambient moisture in the air to
`
`complete the chemical process. Cells with
`liquid electrolyte can be classified as “dry” if
`the electrolyte is immobilized by some
`mechanism, such as by gelling it or by holding
`it in place with an absorbent substance such as
`paper.
`
`In common usage, “dry cell” batteries will
`usually refer to zinc-carbon cells (Sec. 2.3.1)
`or zinc—alkaline-manganese dioxide cells
`(Sec. 2.3.2), where the electrolyte is often
`gelled or held in place by absorbent paper.
`
`Some cells are difficult to categorize. For
`example, one type of cell is designed to be
`stored for long periods without its electrolyte
`present. Just before power is needed from the
`cell, liquid electrolyte is added.
`
`2.1.3 Categories
`
`Batteries can further be classified by their
`intended use. The following sections discuss
`four generic categories of batteries;
`“vehicular” batteries (Sec. 2.2), “household”
`batteries (Sec. 2.3), “specialty” batteries (Sec.
`2.4), and “other” batteries (Sec. 2.5). Each
`section will focus on the general properties of
`that category of battery.
`'
`
`Note that some battery types (acidic or
`alkaline, wet or dry) can fall into several
`different categories. For this guideline, battery
`
`Page 00020
`
`

`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`types are placed into the category in which
`they are most likely to be found in commercial
`usage.
`
`2.2 VEHICULAR BATTERIES
`
`This section discusses battery types and
`configurations that are typically used in motor
`vehicles. This category can include batteries
`that drive electric motors directly or those that
`provide starting energy for cornbusti on
`engines. This category will also include large,
`stationary batteries used as power sources for
`emergency building lighting, remote-site
`power, and computer back up.
`
`Equation 1 shows the chemical reaction in a
`lead-acid cell.
`
`PbO2+Pb+2H2SO4
`
`2PbSO4+2H2O
`
`Equation 1. The chemical reaction in a lead-
`acid battery.
`
`lead-acid batteries remain popular because
`they can produce high or low currents over a
`wide range of temperatures, they have good
`shelf life and life cycles, and they are
`relatively inexpensive to manufacture. Lead-
`acid batteries are
`
`Battery manufacturing is the single
`largest use for lead in the world.
`
`
`usually
`rechargeable.
`
`Lead-acid batteries
`come in all manner
`
`Vehicular batteries
`
`are usually
`available off-the-
`shelf in standard
`
`designs or can be
`custom built for
`
`specific applications.
`
`2.2.1 Lead-Acid
`
`Lead-acid batteries, developed in the late
`1800s, were the first commercially practical
`batteries. Batteries of this type remain popular
`because they are relatively inexpensive to
`produce and sell. The most widely known uses
`of lead-acid batteries are as automobile
`
`batteries. Rechargeable lead-acid batteries
`have become the most widely used type of
`battery in the world—more than 20 times the
`use rate of its nearest rivals. In fact, battery
`manufacturing is the single largest use for lead
`in the world.‘
`
`‘Encyclopedia of Physical Science and
`Technology, Brooke Schumm, Jr.. 1992.
`
`6
`
`of shapes and sizes,
`from household batteries to large batteries for
`use in submarines. The most noticeable
`
`shortcomings of lead-acid batteries are their
`relatively heavy weight and their falling
`voltage profile during discharge (Sec. 3.5).
`
`2.2.2 Sealed vs. Flooded
`
`In “flooded” batteries, the oxygen created at
`the positive electrode is released from the cell
`and vented into the atmosphere. Similarly, the
`hydrogen created at the negative electrode is
`also vented into the atmosphere. The overall
`result is a net loss of water (H20) from the
`cell. This lost water needs to be periodically
`replaced. Flooded batteries must be vented to
`prevent excess pressure from the build up of
`these gases. Also, the room or enclosure
`housing the battery must be vented, since a
`
`Page 00021
`
`

`
`concentrated hydrogen and oxygen
`atmosphere is explosive.
`
`2.2.4 Battery Categories for Vehicular
`Batteries
`
`New Technology Batteries Guide
`
`In sealed batteries, however, the generated
`oxygen combines chemically with the lead and
`then the hydrogen at the negative electrode,
`and then again with reactive agents in the
`electrolyte, to recreate water. The net result is
`no significant loss of water from the cell.
`
`2.2.3 Deep-Cycle Batteries
`
`Deep-cycle batteries are built in configurations
`similar to those of regular batteries, except
`that they are specifically designed for
`prolonged use rather than for short bursts of
`use followed by a short recycling per