1111 I
`
`Ken C. Pohlmann
`
`Fourth Edition
`
`McGraw-Hill
`New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogota
`Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan
`Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore
`Sydney Tokyo Toronto
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`Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
`
`Pohlmann, Ken C.
`Principles of digital audio I Ken C. Pohlmann. -4th ed.
`p.
`em.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-07-134819-0
`1. Sound-Recording and reproducing-Digital techniques.
`TK7881.4 P63 2000
`621.389'3-dc21
`
`I. Title.
`
`99-054165
`
`McGraw-Hill
`~
`A Division of The McGraw·HiU Companies
`
`Copyright © 2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
`Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United
`States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
`distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval
`system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
`
`1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 AGMI AGM 9 0 5 4 3 2 1 0
`
`ISBN 0-07-134819-0
`
`The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S. Chapman and the
`production supervisor was Maureen Harper. It was set in Century Schoolbook by
`Pro-Image Corporation.
`
`Printed and bound by Quebecor I Martinsburg.
`
`This book was printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing
`a minimum of 50% recycled, de-inked fiber.
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`McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums
`and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more infor(cid:173)
`mation, please write to the Director of Special Sales, Professional Publishing, Mc(cid:173)
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`
`Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw(cid:173)
`Hill Companies, Inc. ("Mc-Graw-Hill") from sources believed to be reli(cid:173)
`able. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the ac(cid:173)
`curacy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither
`McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors,
`omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work
`is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors
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`

`

`Chapter
`
`pact
`
`isc
`
`The compact disc system is perhaps the most remarkable development in au(cid:173)
`dio technology since the birth of the technology in 1877 with Edison's inven(cid:173)
`tion of the tinfoil recorder and the commercial cylinder record. It embodies
`many revolutionary steps in design, such as digital signal storage, optical
`scanning, error correction, and new manufacturing processes; altogether it
`established a new fidelity standard for the consumer. In addition, compact
`disc music playback is only one aspect of the many CD applications available.
`The compact disc system contains several unique technologies original to
`the audio field; when combined, they form an unprecedented means of storage.
`A compact disc contains digitally encoded data that is read by a laser beam.
`Because the laser is focused on a reflective layer embedded within the disc,
`dust and fingerprints on the reading surface do not normally affect reproduc(cid:173)
`tion. The effect of most errors that normally occur can be minimized by error
`correction circuitry. Because no stylus touches the disc surface, there is no
`disc wear, no matter how often the disc is played. Thus, digital storage, error
`correction, and disc longevity result in a robust digital storage medium. Above
`all, the CD offers high-density data storage. Whereas the (analog) Edison cyl(cid:173)
`inder stored the equivalent of 100 bits/mm2
`, the CD stores about 1 million
`bits/mm2
`• But as impressive as the CD is, the SACD format surpasses it.
`
`Invention of the Compact Disc
`
`The chronology of events in the development of the compact disc spans almost
`a decade from inception to introduction. Even then, the development of optical
`disc storage predates the CD by several more decades. The compact disc in(cid:173)
`corporates many technologies pioneered by many individuals. and corpora(cid:173)
`tions; however, Philips Corporation of the Netherlands and Sony Corporation
`of Japan must be credited with its primary development. Optical disc tech(cid:173)
`nology developed by Philips and error-correction techniques developed by
`Sony, when merged, resulted in the successful compact disc format. The orig-
`243
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`244
`
`Chapter Nine
`
`inal standard established by these two companies guarantees that discs and
`players made by different manufacturers are compatible. The CD-Audio or
`CD-DA format is sometimes called the Red Book standard (after the color of
`the notebook used to hold the original specification). It is specified in the IEC
`908 standard, (International Electrotechnical Commission) available from the
`American National Standards Institute.
`Philips began working on optical disc storage of images in 1969. It first
`announced the technique of storing audio material optically in 1972. Analog
`modulation methods used for video storage were deemed unsuitable, and the
`possibility of digital signal encoding was examined. Furthermore, Philips es(cid:173)
`tablishea laser readout and small disc diameter as a design prerequisite. Sony
`similarly had explored the possibility of an optical, large-diameter audio disc,
`and had extensively researched the error processing and channel coding re(cid:173)
`quirements for a practical realization of the system. Other manufacturers
`such as Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Matsushita, JVC, Sanyo, Toshiba, and Pioneer
`advanced proposals for a digital audio disc. By 1977, numerous manufacturers
`had shown prototype optical disc audio players. In 1978, Philips and Sony
`designated disc characteristics, signal format and error-correction methods,
`and in 1979 they reached an agreement in principle to collaborate (with design
`meetings from August 1979 through May 1980), with decisions on signal for(cid:173)
`mat and disc material. In June 1980, they jointly proposed the Compact Disc
`Digital Audio system, which was subsequently adopted by the Digital Audio
`Disc Committee, a group representing over 25 manufacturers.
`Following development of a semiconductor laser pickup and LSI (large-scale
`integration) circuits for signal processing and D/ A conversion, the compact
`disc system was introduced in October of 1982 in Japan and Europe. In March
`1983, the compact disc was made available in the United States. Over 350,000
`players and 5.5 million discs were sold worldwide in 1983, and 900,000 players
`and 17 million discs in 1984, making the CD one of the most successful elec(cid:173)
`tronic products ever introduced. Starting with the original CD-DA format, the
`compact disc family was expanded to include CD-ROM (1984), CD-i (1986),
`CD-WO (1988), Video-CD (1994) and CD-RW (1996) with a host of applications
`in data, audio, video, and beyond. Today, well over a billion discs are sold
`annually. The SACD, introduced in 1999, incorporates aspects of the CD, but
`is more revolutionary than evolutionary.·
`
`Compact Disc Overview
`
`The compact disc system is a highly efficient information storage system. Each
`audio disc stores a stereo audio signal comprised of two 16-bit data words
`sampled at 44.1 kHz; thus 1.41 million bits/second of audio data are output
`from the player. Other data overhead such as error correction, synchroniza(cid:173)
`tion, and modulation are required, which triple the number of bits stored on
`a disc. Altogether, the channel bit rate, the rate at which data is read from
`the disc, is 4.3218 Mbps. A disc containing an hour of music thus holds about
`15.5 billion channel bits- an impressive number for a disc that measures 12
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`The Compact Disc
`
`245
`
`em in diameter, and costs a few cents to manufacture. Apart from modulation
`and error correction overhead, a CD-DA disc holds a maximum of 6.3 billion
`bits, or 783 million bytes of user information (1.41 million bits per second, for :
`74 minutes).
`A standard compact disc has a maximum playing time of 7 4 minutes, 33
`seconds. By varying the CD standards slightly, playing times of over 80
`minutes can be achieved. For example, a track pitch of 1.5 J.Lm and linear
`velocity of 1.2 m/ s would yield about 82 minutes of playing time.
`Information is contained in pits impressed into the disc's plastic substrate.
`That surf~ce is metalized to reflect the laser beam used to read the data from
`underneath the disc. A pit is about 0.6 J.Lm wide (about the width of 500
`hydrogen atoms) and a disc might hold about two billion of them. If a disc
`were enlarged so that its pits were the size of grains of rice, the disc would
`be half a mile in diameter. Each pit edge represents a binary 1; flat areas
`between pits or areas within pits are decoded as binary Os. Data is read from
`the disc as a change in intensity of reflected laser light; reading a CD causes
`no more wear to the recording than your reading causes to the words printed
`on this page (also conveyed to your eyes via reflected light).
`The pits are aligned in a spiral track running from the inside diameter of
`the disc to the outside. CDs with maximum playing times contain data to
`within 3 mm of the outer disc edge. CDs with shorter playing times have an
`unused area at the outer edge. This allows a greater manufacturing yield
`because errors tend to increase at the outer diameter, and the disc is oblivious
`to fingerprints on the empty outer diameter. If unwound, a CD track would
`run for three miles. The pitch (distance between adjacent tracks) of the CD
`spiral is nominally 1.6 J.Lm. The period at the end of this sentence would cover
`more than 200 tracks. There are 22,188 revolutions across the disc's signal
`surface of 35.5 mm.
`An optical pickup retrieves data. A laser beam is emitted and is guided
`through optics to the disc surface. The reflected light is detected by the pickup,
`and the data from the disc conveyed on the beam is converted to an electrical
`signal. Because nothing touches the disc except light, light itself and electrical
`servo circuits are used to keep the laser beam properly focused on the disc
`surface and properly aligned with the spiral track. The pits are encoded with
`eight-to-fourteen modulation (EFM) for greater storage density, and Cross(cid:173)
`Interleave Reed-Solomon code (CIRC) for error correction; circuits in players
`provide demodulation and error correction. When the audio data has been
`properly recovered from the disc and converted into a binary signal, it is input
`to digital oversampling filters and D I A converters to reconstruct the analog
`signal.
`Music CDs delivers high fidelity sound with outstanding performance spec(cid:173)
`ifications. With 16-bit quantization sampled at 44.1 kHz, players typically
`exhibit a frequency response of 5 Hz to 20 kHz with a deviation of ± 0.2 dB.
`Dynamic range exceeds 100 dB, signal-to-noise ratio exceeds 100 dB, and
`channel separation exceeds 100 dB at 1kHz. Harmonic distortion at 1kHz is
`less than 0.002%. Wow and flutter are limited to the tolerances of quartz
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`246
`
`Chapter Nine
`
`accuracy, which is essentially unmeasurable. With digital filtering, phase
`shifts are less than 0.5°. Dl A converters provide linearity to within 0.5 dB at
`-90 dB. Excluding unreasonable abuse, a disc will remain in satisfactory play(cid:173)
`ing condition indefinitely, as the pickup does not touch the disc, and the me(cid:173)
`dium does not significantly age. Electrical measurements of CD players may
`be carried out with a variety of techniques, such as those described in the
`AES17 specification.
`
`Disc Encoding
`The CD's high data density results from a combination of the optical design
`of the disc and the method of coding the data impressed on it. For example,
`the wavelength of the reading laser and numerical aperture of the objective
`lens are selected to achieve a small spot size. This allows small pit/land di(cid:173)
`mensions. In addition, the pit/land track uses a constant linear velocity, and
`that velocity is set low, to increase the track's linear data density. Also, EFM
`modulation is used to encode the stored data. Although it creates more chan(cid:173)
`nel bits to be stored, the net result is a 25% increase in audio data capacity.
`
`Disc specifications
`The Red Book specifies both the physical and logical characteristics of a Com(cid:173)
`pact Disc. The physical characteristics of the compact disc qre shown in Fig.
`9.1. Disc diameter is 120 mm, hole diameter is 15 mm, and thickness is 1.2
`mm. The innermost part of the disc does not hold data; it provides a clamping
`area for the player to hold the disc firmly to the spindle motor shaft. Data is
`recorded on an area 35.5 mm wide. A lead-in area rings the innermost data
`area, and a lead-out area rings the outermost area. The lead-in and lead-out
`areas contain nonaudio data used to control the player.
`A transparent plastic substrate forms most of a disc's 1.2-mm thickness.
`Data is physically contained in pits that are impressed along its top surface
`and are covered with a very thin (50 to 100 nm) metal (for example, aluminum
`or gold) layer. Another thin (10 to 30 p,m) plastic layer protects the metalized
`pit surface, on top of which the identifying label (5 p,m) is printed. A laser
`beam is used to read the data. It is applied from below and passes through
`the transparent substrate and back again.
`The fact that the laser beam travels through the disc substrate provides a
`significant asset. The velocity of light decreases when it passes from air to the
`substrate. The plastic substrate has a refractive index of 1.55 (as opposed to
`1.0 for air); the velocity of light slows from 3 X 105 km/s to 1.9 X 105 km/s.
`When the velocity of light slows, the beam is refracted, and focusing occurs.
`Because of the refractive index, the thickness of the disc, and the numerical
`aperture of the laser's lens, the approximately 800 p,m .diameter of the laser
`beam on the disc surface is focused to approximately 1.0 p,m (Airy pattern
`half-intensity level) at the pit surface. The laser beam is thus focused to a
`point slightly larger than the 0.6 micron pit width, as shown in Fig. 9.2. More-
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`The Compact Disc
`
`247
`
`120 mm
`
`117mm
`
`116mm
`
`•v LEADOUT
`I LEAD IN
`~
`·------F
`\
`I
`·I
`
`50mm
`
`46mm
`
`.
`
`26mm
`
`33mm
`
`INFORMATION
`(PIT)
`
`J
`
`I·
`PROTECTIVE
`LAYER
`j_
`\
`.-;------------
`ft!·
`
`1.2mm
`
`T /LASE~BEAM
`
`TRANSPARENT
`DISC SUBSTRATE
`(N = 1.55)
`
`CLAMPING AREA
`
`PROTECTIVE
`LAYER
`
`LABEL
`
`TRANSPARENT(cid:173)
`SUBSTRATE
`
`Figure 9.1 Physical specification of the compact disc showing disc di(cid:173)
`mensions and relief structure of data pits. (Sony Corporation)
`
`LASER BEAM
`
`over, the effects of any dust or scratches on the substrate's outer surface are
`minimized because their size (and importance) at the data surface are effec(cid:173)
`tively reduced along with the laser beam. Specifically, any obstruction less
`than 0.5 mm is insignificant and causes no error in the readout.
`Data is physically stored as a phase structure. The data reference surface,
`as noted, is metalized. The reflective flat surface, called land, typically causes
`90% of the laser light to be reflected back into the pickup. The construction
`of the CD is diffraction-limited, that is, the wavelength of the laser light would
`not permit smaller formations. When viewed from the laser's perspective (un(cid:173)
`derneath), the pits appear as bumps. The height of each bump is between 0.11
`to 0.13 p.,m. This dimension is slightly smaller than a specific dimension: the
`---------E -----' -----E---------)------(----'-{---------,_ +-
`
`J.,n-(----)---,~~~"E:~:::_~:, __ t-----~/r
`~------(----------}--{-----_,_ ---{-----} --G-----t .
`
`T
`
`1.6 p.m
`
`Figure 9.2 Data pits are aligned along a spiral track. The laser spot
`on the data surface has a diameter of approximately 1.0 J.Lm (half(cid:173)
`intensity level of the Airy pattern), covering the 0.6-J.Lm pit width.
`
`....-- Disc rotation
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`248
`
`Chapter Nine
`
`laser beam's wavelength in air is 780 nm. Inside the polycarbonate substrate,
`with a refractive index of 1.55, the laser's wavelength is about 500 nm. The
`height of the bumps is thus approximately :Y4 of the laser's wavelength in the
`substrate.
`A pit height equal to :Y4 the laser's wavelength creates a phase difference of
`:Y2 wavelength (:Y4 + :Y4 wavelength path differences) between the part of the
`beam reflected from the bump and the part reflected from the surrounding
`land, as shown in Fig. 9.3. The phase difference forms a diffraction pattern in
`the reflected light; this causes destructive interference in the main reflecting
`beam. A pit thus reduces the intensity of the reflected light returning to the
`objective lens. Pit diffraction is discussed in chapter 8.
`In theory, when the beam strikes the land between pits, virtually all of its
`light is reflected, and when it strikes a pit, virtually all of its light is canceled,
`so that virtually none is reflected. In practice, the laser spot is larger than is
`required for complete cancellation between pit and land reflections, and pits
`are made slightly shallower than the theoretical figure of :Y4 wavelength; this
`yields a better tracking signal, among other things. About 25% of the power
`of the incident light is reflected from a long bump. In any case, the presence
`of pits and land is thus read by the laser beam; specifically, the disc surface
`modulates the intensity of the light beam. Thus the data physically encoded
`on the disc can be recovered by the laser and then converted to an electrical
`signal.
`Examination of a pit track reveals that the linear dimensions of the track
`are the same at the beginning of its spiral as at the end. Specifically, a CD
`rotates with constant linear velocity (CLV), a condition in which a uniform
`relative velocity is maintained between the disc and the pickup. The player
`must adjust the disc's rotational speed to maintain a constant velocity as the
`spiral diameter changes. Because each outer track revolution contains more
`pits than each inner track revolution, the disc must be slowed down as it
`plays. The disc rotates at a speed of 500 rpm when the pickup is reading the
`inner circumference, and as the pickup moves outward, the rotational speed
`gradually decreases to 200 rpm. Thus a constant linear velocity is maintained.
`In other words, all of the pits are read at the same speed, regardless of the
`
`Reflected beam
`
`Figure 9.3 The laser spot reads
`data as an intensity modulation
`of its reflected beam. The phase
`structure of the data surface
`places the pit height about A/ 4
`over the land surface; this cre(cid:173)
`ates destructive interference in
`the reflected beam.
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`The Compact Disc
`
`249
`
`circumference of that part of the spiral. This is accomplished by a CLV servo
`system; the player reads frame synchronization words from the data and ad(cid:173)
`justs the disc speed to maintain a constant data rate.
`Although the CLV of any particular compact disc is fixed, the CLVs used on
`different discs can range from 1.2 to 1.4 m/ s. In general, discs with playing
`times of less than 60 minutes are recorded at 1.4 m/s, and discs with longer
`playing times use a slower velocity, to a minimu1n of 1.2 m/ s. The CD player
`is indifferent to the actual CLV; it automatically regulates the disc rotational
`speed to maintain a constant channel bit rate of 4.3218 MHz.
`
`Data encoding
`The channel bits, the data actually encoded on the disc, are the end product
`of a coding process accomplished prior to disc mastering, then decoded as a
`disc is played. Whether the original is an analog or digital recording, the audio
`program is represented as 16-bit PCM data. The data stream must undergo
`CIRC error correction encoding and EFM modulation, and subcode and syn(cid:173)
`chronization words must be incorporated as well.
`All data on a CD is formatted by frames. By definition, a frame is the small(cid:173)
`est complete section of recognizable data on a disc. The frame provides a
`means to distinguish between audio data and its parity, the synchronization
`word, and the subcode. Frame construction prior to EFM modulation is shown
`in Fig. 9.4. All of the required data is placed into the frame format during
`encoding. The end result of encoding and modulation is a bit stream of frames,
`each frame consisting of 588 channel bits.
`To begin assembly of a frame, six 32-bit PCM audio sampling periods (al(cid:173)
`ternating between left and right channel) are grouped in a frame. Although
`this places 192 audio bits in the frame, it is a small segment of the recorded
`waveform. The 32-bit sampling periods are divided to yield four 8-bit audio
`symbols. To scatter possible errors, the symbols from different frames are in(cid:173)
`terleaved so that the audio signals in one frame originate from different
`
`1 frame
`
`(1/7.35 ms)
`
`Data (96 bits)
`
`Data (96 bits)
`
`Figure 9.4 Elements of a CD frame shown without EFM modulation and interleaving. All
`data except the sync word undergo EFM modulation to create a total of 588 channel bits.
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`250
`
`Chapter Nine
`
`frames. In addition, eight 8-bit parity symbols are generated per frame, four
`in the middle of the frame and four at the end. The interleaving and gener(cid:173)
`ation of parity bits constjtute the error correction encoding based on the Cross(cid:173)
`Interleave Reed-Solomon code. CIRC is discussed in chapter 5.
`One subcode symbol is added per frame; two of these subcode bits (P and
`Q) contain information detailing total number of selections on the disc, their
`beginning and ending points, index points within a selection, and other infor(cid:173)
`mation. Six of these subcode bits (R, S, T, U, V, and W) are available for other
`applications, such as encoding text or graphics information on audio CDs.
`After the audio, parity, and subcode data is assembled, the data is modulated
`using eight to fourteen modulation (EFM). This gives the bit stream specific
`patterns of 1s and Os, thus defining the lengths of pits and lands to facilitate
`optical reading of the disc. EFM permits a high number of channel bit tran(cid:173)
`sitions for arbitrary pit and land lengths. This increases data density and
`helps facilitate control of the spindle motor speed. To accomplish EFM, blocks
`of 8 data bits are translated into blocks of 14 channel bits using a dictionary
`that assigns an arbitrary and unambiguous word of 14 channel bits to each
`8-bit word. The 8-bit symbols require 28 = 256 unique patterns, and of the
`possible 214 = 16,384 patterns in the 14-bit system, 267 meet the pattern
`requirements; therefore, 256 are used and 11 discarded. A portion of the con(cid:173)
`version table is shown in Table 9.1. EFM is discussed in chapter 3.
`Blocks of 14 channel bits are linked by three merging bits to maintain the
`proper run length between words, as well as suppress de content, and aid
`clock synchronization. Successive EFM words cannot simply be concatenated;
`this might violate the run length of the code by placing binary 1s closer than
`three periods, or further than eleven periods. To prevent the former, a 0 merg(cid:173)
`ing bit is used, and the latter is prevented with a 1 merging bit. Two merging
`bits are sufficient to maintain proper run length. A third merging bit is added
`for more coding flexibility, to more effectively control low frequency content of
`the output signal. A 1 can be used to invert the signal and minimize accu-
`
`TABLE 9.1 Excerpt from the EFM
`conversion table. Data bits are
`translated into channel bits.
`
`8-bit data
`01100100
`01100101
`01100110
`01100111
`01101000
`01101001
`01101010
`01101011
`01101100
`01101101
`01101110
`01101111
`01110000
`
`14-bit EFM
`01000100100010
`00000000100010
`01000000100100
`00100100100010
`01001001000010
`10000001000010
`10010001000010
`10001001000010
`01000001000010
`00000001000010
`00010001000010
`00100001000010
`10000000100010
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`The Compact Disc
`
`251
`
`mulating de offset in the signal's polarity. This is monitored by the digital sum
`value (DSV); it tallies the number of 1s by adding a + 1 to its count, and the
`number of Os by adding a -1. An example of a merging bit determination,
`observing run length and DSV criteria, is shown in Fig. 9.5. Low-frequency
`content must be avoided because it can interfere with the operation of tracking
`and focusing servos which operate at low frequencies; in addition, low(cid:173)
`frequency signals such as from fingerprints on the disc can be filtered out
`without affecting the data signal itself.
`With the addition of merging bits, the ratio of bits before and after modu(cid:173)
`lation is 8:17. The resulting channel stream produces pits and lands that are
`at least two but no more than ten successive Os long; the pit/land family
`portrait is shown in Fig. 9.6. This collection of pit/land lengths encodes all
`
`Data bits 0 1
`
`XMM = 000
`
`XMM = 010
`
`XMM = 001
`
`DSV
`
`t
`
`___...t
`
`Figure 9.5 An example of merging bit determination. In this ex(cid:173)
`ample, the first merging bit is set to 0 to satisfy EFM run length
`rules; the two remaining bits are set to 00 to minimize DSV.
`(Heemskerk and Schouhamer Immink)
`
`Figure 9.6 The complete collec(cid:173)
`tion of pit (and land) lengths cre(cid:173)
`ated by EFM ranges from 3T to
`llT. Minimum pit length is
`0.833 to 0.972 J.Lm; maximum
`pit length is 3.054 to 3.56 J.Lm,
`depending on velocity (1.2 to 1.4
`m/s).
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`Chapter Nine
`
`data contained on a CD. These pit/land lengths are described at 3T, 4 T, 5T,
`. . . 11 T where T is one channel bit period. Physically, pit and land lengths
`vary incrementally from 0.833 to 3.054 f.Lm at a track velocity of 1.2 m/s, and
`from 0.972 to 3.56 J.Lm at a velocity of 1.4 m/ s.
`The 3T I 11 T signal represents EFM channel bits on the CD surface. This is
`accomplished by coding the channel bits as NRZ, and then NRZI data. Each
`logical transition in the NRZI stream represents a pit edge, as shown in Fig.
`9.7. The code is invertable; pits and lands represent channel bits equally;
`inversions caused by merging bits do not affect the data content. When the
`signal is decoded, the merging bits are discarded. After EFM, there are more
`channel bits to accommodate, but acceptable pit and land patterns become
`available. With this modulation, the highest frequency in the signal is de(cid:173)
`creased; therefore, a lower track velocity can be utilized. One benefit is con(cid:173)
`servation of disc real estate.
`The resulting EFM data must be delineated, so a synchronization pattern
`is placed at the beginning of each frame. The synchronization word is uniquely
`identifiable from any other possible data configuration (specifically, the 24-
`channel bit synchronization word is 100000000001000000000010 plus three
`merging bits). With the synchronization pattern, the player can identify the
`start of data frames. A complete frame contains one 24-bit synchronization
`word, 14 channel bits of subcode, 24 words of 14-channel bit audio data, eight
`words of 14-channel bit parity, and 102 merging bits, for a total of 588 channel
`bits per frame. Because each 588-bit frame contains twelve 16-bit audio sam(cid:173)
`ples, the result is 49 channel bits per audio sample. Thus when the data
`manipulation is completed, the original audio bit rate of 1.41 million bits/
`second is augmented to 4.3218 million channel bits/second. This· resulting
`channel bit stream is physically stored on the disc. The entire encoding pro(cid:173)
`cess is summarized in Fig. 9.8.
`A finished CD must contain a lead-in area, program area and a 90-second
`lead-out area of silence. The program area holds from 1 to 99 tracks. In ad(cid:173)
`dition, each track can contain up to 100 time markers called index points.
`
`Data bits
`2X8=16 bits
`
`0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 o· 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Channel bits
`2X 14+3=31 bits
`14 :
`: 14
`
`I
`I
`
`I
`
`4T
`
`~
`I 3T I 4T
`I 4T
`
`I
`I
`
`NRZ
`
`NRZI
`
`Pits/lands
`
`Figure 9.7 Each 8-bit half-sample undergoes EFM, three
`merging bits concatenate 14-bit words, the NRZ representa(cid:173)
`tion is converted to NRZI, and transitions are represented as
`pit edges on the disc.
`
`SAMSUNG ELECTRONICS CO., LTD., v. AFFINITY LABS OF TEXAS, LLC
`IPR2014-01181 EXHIBIT 2006 – 12
`
`