UNITED STATES PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE
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`_______________________
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`BEFORE THE PATENT TRIAL AND APPEAL BOARD
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`______________________
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`GLOBAL FOUNDRIES U.S., INC., GLOBALFOUNDRIES DRESDEN
`MODULE ONE LLC & CO. KG, GLOBALFOUNDRIES DRESDEN MODULE
`TWO LLC & CO. KG, and THE GILLETTE COMPANY,
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`Petitioners
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`v.
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`ZOND, LLC
`Patent Owner
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`______________________
`Case No. IPR2014-011001
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`Patent 7,604,716 B2
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`______________________
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`DECLARATION OF LARRY D. HARTSOUGH, PH.D.
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`1 Case IPR 2014-00973 has been joined with the instant proceeding.
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`Gillette et al. v. Zond
`IPR2014-01100 Zond Ex. 2004
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`Table of Contents
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`I. Education and Professional Background .............................................................. 1
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`II. Summary ............................................................................................................. 5
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`III. Legal Standards ............................................................................................... 10
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`A. Level of Ordinary Skill in the Art. ................................................................ 10
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`IV. Background TOPICS ....................................................................................... 15
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`B. Claim Interpretation. ..................................................................................... 11
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`C. Legal Standards for Anticipation. ................................................................. 13
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`D. Legal Standards for Obviousness. ................................................................. 14
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`A. Voltage, current, impedance and power. ....................................................... 17
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`B. Control systems. ............................................................................................ 19
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`C. Set point (Controlled Parameter). ................................................................. 22
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`D. Power Control vs. Voltage Control. .............................................................. 23
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`E. Plasmas. ......................................................................................................... 25
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`F. Plasma ignition. ............................................................................................. 27
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`G. High-Density Plasmas. .................................................................................. 29
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`V. Scope and content of The prior art. ................................................................... 35
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`A. Wang. ............................................................................................................ 35
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`B. Kudryavtsev. ................................................................................................. 45
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`C. Mozgrin. ........................................................................................................ 55
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`D. Lantsman. ...................................................................................................... 56
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`VI. Claim Analysis vis-à-vis the Cited References ............................................... 57
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`A. Wang Does Not Anticipate the Invention Claimed in the ’716 Patent. ........ 57
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`B. Wang Does Not Teach a Power Supply Generating “a constant power,” as
`recited in Dependent Claim 4. ............................................................................. 62
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`C. Wang Does Not Teach a Power Supply Generating “a constant voltage,” as
`recited in Dependent Claim 5. ............................................................................. 63
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`D. Wang Does Not Teach a Power Supply “supplying power to the weakly-
`ionized plasma at a time that is between about fifty microseconds and five
`seconds after the ionization source generates the weakly-ionized plasma,” as
`recited in Dependent Claim 6. ............................................................................. 65
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`E. Wang Does Not Teach the Power Supply Supplying “power to the weakly
`ionized plasma for a duration that is sufficient to generate a quasi-static electric
`field,” as Recited in Dependent Claim 7. ............................................................ 66
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`F. It Would Not Have Been Obvious To Combine the Teachings of Wang and
`Lantsman To Achieve the Invention Recited in Claims 12 and 13 of the ’716
`Patent. .................................................................................................................. 67
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`G. It Would Not Have Been Obvious To Combine the Teachings of Wang and
`Kudryavtsev To Achieve the Invention Claimed in the ’716 Patent. .................. 69
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`H. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest The
`Invention Recited in Independent Claims 14 and 26. .......................................... 73
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`I. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest Supplying the
`Electric Pulse Comprises “ applying a quasi-static electric field,” as Recited in
`Dependent Claim 21. ........................................................................................... 77
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`J. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest That Either of
`“a rise time and magnitude of the electrical pulse” is “selected to increase an
`density of the weakly-ionized plasma,” as Recited in Dependent Claim 16. ...... 78
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`K. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest That Either of
`“a rise time and magnitude of the electrical pulse” is “selected to excite atoms in
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`the weakly-ionized plasma to generate secondary electrons that increase an
`ionization rate of the weakly-ionized plasma,” as Recited in Dependent Claim 17
`or “increase an ionization rate of the excited atoms in the weakly-ionized
`plasma,” as Required by Dependent Claim 30. ................................................... 79
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`L. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest a Cathode
`that is Positioned Adjacent to the Anode “form[ing] a gap there between,” as
`Recited in Claim 28. ............................................................................................ 80
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`M. The Combination of Wang and Kudryavtsev Does Not Suggest “a dimension
`of the gap between the anode and the cathode is chosen to increase an ionization
`rate of the excited atoms in the weakly-ionized plasma,” as Required by
`Dependent Claim 29. ........................................................................................... 81
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`N. It Would Not Have Been Obvious To Combine the Teachings of Wang,
`Kudryavtsev, and Mozgrin To Achieve the Invention Claimed in the ’716
`Patent. .................................................................................................................. 83
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`VII. DECLARATION ........................................................................................... 88
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`I, Larry D. Hartsough, do hereby declare:
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`1.
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`I am making this declaration at the request of patent owner Zond, LLC, in
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`connection with the Inter Partes Reviews (IPRs) of U.S. Patent No. 7,604,716 (the
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`“‘716 patent”), set forth in the above caption.
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`2.
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`I am being compensated for my work in this matter at the rate of $300 per
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`hour. I have no interest in the ‘716 patent and my compensation in no way
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`depends on the outcome of this proceeding.
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`3.
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`In forming the opinions set forth in this declaration I reviewed a number of
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`materials, including the ‘716 patent, the file history of the ‘716 patent, the Petitions
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`for Inter Partes Review and the cited references discussed below, the Patent Trial
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`and Appeal Board’s (PTAB’s) Institution Decisions in these IPR proceedings, the
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`transcript of the deposition of Dr. Uwe Kortshagen concerning the ‘716 patent, and
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`the additional materials discussed herein.
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`I. EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL BACKGROUND
`4. My formal education is as follows. I received a Bachelors of Science degree
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`in 1965, Master of Science degree in 1967, and Ph.D. in 1971, all in Materials
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`Science/Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley.
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`5.
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`I have worked in the semiconductor industry for approximately 30 years. My
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`experience includes thin film deposition, vacuum system design, and plasma
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`processing of materials. I made significant contributions to the development of
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`magnetron sputtering hardware and processes for the metallization of silicon
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`integrated circuits. Since the late 1980s, I have also been instrumental in the
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`development of standards for semiconductor fabrication equipment published by
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`the Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (“SEMI”) trade
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`organization.
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`6.
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`From 1971-1974, I was a research metallurgist in the thin film development
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`lab of Optical Coating Laboratory, Inc. In 1975 and 1976, I developed and
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`demonstrated thin film applications and hardware for an in-line system at Airco
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`Temescal. During my tenure (1977-1981) at Perkin Elmer, Plasma Products
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`Division, I served in a number of capacities from Senior Staff Scientist, to
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`Manager of the Advanced Development activity, to Manager of the Applications
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`Laboratory. In 1981, I co-founded a semiconductor equipment company, Gryphon
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`Products, and was VP of Engineering during development of the product. From
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`1984-1988, I was the Advanced Development Manager for Gryphon, developing
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`new hardware and process capabilities. During 1988-1990, I was Project Manager
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`at General Signal Thinfilm on a project to develop and prototype an advanced
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`cluster tool for making thin films. From 1991-2002, I was Manager of PVD
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`(physical vapor deposition) Source Engineering for Varian Associates, Thin Film
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`Systems, and then for Novellus Systems, after they purchased TFS. Since then, I
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`have been consulting full time doing business as UA Associates, where my
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`consulting work includes product development projects, film failure analysis,
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`project management, technical presentations and litigation support.
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`7.
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`Throughout my career, I have developed and/or demonstrated processes and
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`equipment for making thin films, including Al, Ti-W, Ta, and Cu metallization of
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`silicon wafers, RF sputtering and etching, and both RF and DC magnetron reactive
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`sputtering, for example SiO2, Al2O3, ITO (Indium-Tin Oxide), TiN, and TaN. I
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`have been in charge of the development of two sputter deposition systems from
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`conception to prototype and release to manufacturing. I have also specialized in the
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`development and improvement of magnetically enhanced sputter cathodes. I have
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`experience with related technology areas, such as wafer heating, power supply
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`evaluation, wafer cooling, ion beam sources, wafer handling by electrostatics,
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`process pressure control, in-situ wafer/process monitoring, cryogenic pumping,
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`getter pumping, sputter target development, and physical, electrical and optical
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`properties of thin films.
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`8.
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`I am a member of a number of professional organizations including the
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`American Vacuum Society, Sigma Xi (the Scientific Research Society), and as a
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`referee for the Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology. I have been a leader in
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`the development of SEMI Standards for cluster tools and 300mm equipment,
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`including holding various co-chair positions on various standards task forces. I
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`have previously served as a member of the US Department of Commerce’s
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`Semiconductor Technical Advisory Committee.
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`9.
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`I have co-authored many papers, reports, and presentations relating to
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`semiconductor processing, equipment, and materials, including the following:
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`a. P. S. McLeod and L. D. Hartsough, "High-Rate Sputtering of
`Aluminum for Metalization of Integrated Circuits", J. Vac. Sci.
`Technol., 14 263 (1977).
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`b. D. R. Denison and L. D. Hartsough, "Copper Distribution in
`Sputtered Al/Cu Films", J. Vac. Sci. Technol., 17 1326 (1980).
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`c. D. R. Denison and L. D. Hartsough, "Step Coverage in Multiple
`Pass Sputter Deposition" J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A3 686 (1985).
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`d. G. C. D’Couto, G. Tkach, K. A. Ashtiani, L. Hartsough, E.
`Kim, R. Mulpuri, D. B. Lee, K. Levy, and M. Fissel; S. Choi,
`S.-M. Choi, H.-D. Lee, and H. –K. Kang, “In situ physical
`vapor deposition of ionized Ti and TiN thin films using hollow
`cathode magnetron plasma source” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B
`19(1) 244 (2001).
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`10. My areas of expertise include sputter deposition hardware and processes,
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`thin film deposition system design and thin film properties. I am a named inventor
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`on twelve United States patents covering apparatus, methods or processes in the
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`fields of thin film deposition and etching. A copy of my CV is attached as
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`Attachment A.
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`II. SUMMARY
`11. My opinions in this matter are set forth in detail below. Briefly, it is my
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`opinion that:
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`a. none of apparatus recited claims 1-11 and 33 of the ‘716 patent are
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`anticipated by Wang;
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`b. the apparatus recited in claims 12 and 13 would not have been
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`obvious to a person of ordinary skill in the art at the time of the
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`invention in view of the combined teachings of Wang and Lantsman;
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`c. the methods recited in claims 14-18 and 21, and 25 and the apparatus
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`recited in claims 26-32 would not have been obvious to a person of
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`ordinary skill in the art at the time of the invention in view of the
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`combined teachings of Wang and Kudryavtsev;
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`d. the methods recited in claims 19 and 20 would not have been obvious
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`to a person of ordinary skill in the art at the time of the invention in
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`view of the combined teachings of Wang, Kudryavtsev, and
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`Lantsman; and
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`e. the methods recited in claims 22-24 would not have been obvious to a
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`person of ordinary skill in the art at the time of the invention in view
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`of the combined teachings of Wang, Kudryavtsev, and Mozgrin.
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`12. Wang discusses a magnetron sputter reactor in which DC power pulses are
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`applied to a plasma in order to sputter material from a target. While Wang
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`describes controlling aspects of these power pulses, Wang does not teach
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`controlling voltage amplitude or pulse width when generating a high-density
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`plasma to perform the sputtering. Nor does Wang explain any of the
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`electrodynamics of the high-density plasma. As I explain below, control of a
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`pulse’s power level (as in Wang) is very different from controlling the voltage
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`amplitude and rise time of a pulse and even Wang acknowledges this distinction.1
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`Any voltage pulses disclosed by Wang are merely a consequence of the system
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`attempting to deliver the desired power level, i.e., the voltage (and current) are
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`1 Ex. 1104 at 5:52-54 (“Where chamber impedance is changing, the power pulse
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`width is preferably specified rather than the current or voltage pulse widths.”).
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`driven by the power supply of Wang based upon the desired power level but are
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`determined by the plasma impedance.
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`13. Kudryavtsev describes a flash tube, which is designed to apply a high
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`voltage greater than the breakdown voltage across an inert gas resulting in a
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`brilliant flash of light for a short duration. Flash tubes apply a voltage greater than
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`the breakdown voltage, which may initiate the flash by an arc between the cathode
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`and the anode. Kudryavtsev describes a voltage pulse that causes an “explosion” in
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`electron density that appears to cause an arcing condition as shown in his measured
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`voltage and current waveforms. A person of ordinary skill in the art would
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`therefore not refer to Kudryavtsev at all when designing a plasma generator, where
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`arcing is an undesirable characteristic.2
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`14.
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`In my opinion, it would not have been obvious to combine the teachings of
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`Wang and Kudryavtsev. As I explain further below, there are significant
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`differences between the experimental apparatus of Kudryavtsev and the magnetron
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`sputter reactor described by Wang. Consequently, a person of ordinary skill in the
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`art would not have expected that applying the teachings of Kudryavtsev in a Wang-
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`type system would have yielded predictable results or would have performed in an
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`expected way. Behaviors of charged particles (such as electrons and ions) in
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`2 Ex. 1101 at 3:48-52.
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`magnetic fields (as in systems such as those discussed by Wang) are vastly
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`different from their behaviors in the absence of magnetic fields (as in systems
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`reported by Kudryavtsev).
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`15. My conclusions regarding Wang and Kudryavtsev are not changed when one
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`further considers the teachings of Mozgrin. While Mozgrin purports to have
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`considered certain dependencies reported by Kudryavtsev, Mozgrin determined that
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`for systems employing a magnetic field, a supply unit “providing square voltage
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`and current pulses with rise times (leading edge) of 5 – 60 µs and durations as
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`much as 1.5 ms” was needed.3 Wang, on the other hand, was concerned with
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`systems that used magnetic filed but considered it important that pulses have
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`“significant” rise times and pulse widths preferably less than 200 µs and no more
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`than 1 ms.4 Given these important distinctions in the nature of the supply unit, the
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`teachings of Mozgrin would be of little value to a person of ordinary skill in the art
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`when considering the system of Wang. Significant experimentation would still be
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`required in order to adapt any teachings of Mozgrin to the new regime of Wang.
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`16.
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`It is also my opinion it would not have been obvious to combine the
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`teachings of Wang and Lantsman. Lantsman differs substantially from Wang.
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`3 IPR2014-00808 Ex. 1303 at p. 401, rt. col. ¶ 1.
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`4 Ex. 1104 at 5:26-27, 43-48; 8:41-42.
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`Whereas Wang describes the application of “narrow pulses of negative DC power
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`supplied from a pulsed DC power supply,”5 Lantsman employs two separate power
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`supplies: “[a] secondary power supply [that] pre-ignites the plasma by driving the
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`cathode to a process initiation voltage[, and] a primary power supply [that
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`thereafter] electrically drives the cathode to generate plasma current and deposition
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`on a wafer.”6 Lantsman does not disclose a pulsed power supply, any type of
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`electrical pulse, or a strongly-ionized plasma. Consequently, a skilled artisan
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`would not have been motivated to modify Wang’s pulsed power magnetron
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`sputtering system with a system that employs separate, continuous DC power
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`supplies, such as that discussed by Lantsman.
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`17. My opinions in this regard do not change when one considers the additional
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`teachings of Kudryavtsev. As explained in detail below, because Kudryavtsev
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`suggests forming an arc, a person of ordinary skill in the art would not have
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`applied any of its teachings to a magnetron sputter reactor for which reducing
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`arcing (as in Wang) was a consideration. Accordingly, it would not have been
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`obvious to combine the teachings of Wang, Lantsman, and Kudryavtsev.
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`5 Id. at 5:18-22.
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`6 Ex. 1105, Abstract.
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`III. LEGAL STANDARDS
`18.
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`In this section I describe my understanding of certain legal standards. I have
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`been informed of these legal standards by Zond’s attorneys. I am not an attorney
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`and I am relying only on instructions from Zond’s attorneys for these legal
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`standards.
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`A. Level of Ordinary Skill in the Art.
`19.
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`I understand that a person of ordinary skill in the art provides a reference
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`point from which the prior art and claimed invention should be viewed. This
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`reference point prevents one from using his or her own insight or hindsight in
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`deciding whether a claim is obvious.
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`20.
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`In my opinion, given the disclosure of the ‘716 patent and the disclosure of
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`the prior art references considered here, I consider a person of ordinary skill in the
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`art at the time of filing of the ‘716 patent to be someone who holds at least a
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`bachelor of science degree in physics, material science, or electrical/computer
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`engineering with at least two years of work experience or equivalent in the field of
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`development of plasma-based processing equipment. I met or exceeded the
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`requirements for one of ordinary skill in the art at the time of the invention and
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`continue to meet and/or exceed those requirements.
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`B. Claim Interpretation.
`21.
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`I understand that the Board has construed the term “strongly ionized plasma”
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`as “a plasma with a relatively high peak density of ions” and has construed the
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`term “weakly ionized plasma” as “a plasma with a relatively low peak density of
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`ions.” In rendering the opinions set forth herein I have applied these constructions.
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`22.
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`I further understand that the Board has construed the term “weakly-ionized
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`plasma substantially eliminating the probability of developing an electrical
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`breakdown condition in the chamber” as “weakly-ionized plasma that substantially
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`eliminates the probability of developing an electrical breakdown condition when
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`an electrical pulse is applied across the plasma thereby to generate a strongly-
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`ionized plasma.” In rendering the opinions set forth herein I have applied this
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`construction.
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`23.
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`I also understand that a means plus function claim limitation must be
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`construed to cover the corresponding structure, material, or acts described in the
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`specification and equivalents thereof. To that end, I understand the Board has
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`adopted the following constructions of means plus function terms in the claims of
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`the ‘716 patent.
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`Term
`“means for ionizing a feed gas in a
`chamber to form a weakly-ionized
`plasma that substantially eliminates the
`probability of developing an electrical
`breakdown condition in the chamber”
`“means for supplying an electrical pulse
`across the weakly-ionized plasma to
`transform the weakly-ionized plasma to
`a strongly-ionized plasma without
`developing an electrical breakdown
`condition in the chamber”
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`Construction
`a power supply electrically connected to
`a cathode, an anode, and/or an electrode
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`a pulsed power supply electrically
`connected to a cathode, an anode, and/or
`an electrode
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`In rendering the opinions set forth herein I have applied the above constructions,
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`with the exception of the Board’s construction for “means for ionizing a feed gas . .
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`. .” In my opinion, the Board’s construction of this term is flawed inasmuch as it
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`fails to account for the important cathode-anode arrangement that is described by
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`Dr. Chistyakov. According to the ‘716 patent, “[t]he anode 216 is positioned so as
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`to form a gap 220 between the anode 216 and the cathode 204 that is sufficient to
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`allow current to flow through a region 222 between the anode 216 and the cathode
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`204.”7 “The gap 220 and the total volume of the region 222 are parameters in the
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`7 Ex. 1101 at 4:30-33.
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`ionization process . . . .”8 Because the gap (and the volume resulting therefrom)
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`between the anode and cathode is specifically called out as being a parameter in
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`the ionization process, in my opinion a person of ordinary skill in the art would
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`consider the gap to be a part of the structure of the recited “means for ionization.”
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`Therefore, in rendering the opinions set forth herein I have construed the “means
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`for ionizing a feed gas in a chamber to form a weakly-ionized plasma that
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`substantially eliminates the probability of developing an electrical breakdown
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`condition in the chamber” as “a power supply electrically connected to a cathode
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`separated from an anode, and/or an electrode, by a gap there between.”
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`C. Legal Standards for Anticipation.
`24.
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`I understand that a claim is anticipated if (i) each and every element and
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`limitation of the claim at issue is found either expressly or inherently in a single
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`prior art reference, and (ii) the elements and limitations are arranged in the prior art
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`reference in the same way as recited in the claims at issue.
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`8 Id. at 4:36-38.
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`D. Legal Standards for Obviousness.
`25.
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`I understand that even if a patent is not anticipated, it may still be invalid if
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`the differences between the claimed subject matter and the prior art are such that
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`the subject matter as a whole would have been obvious at the time the invention
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`was made to a person of ordinary skill in the pertinent art.
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`26.
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`I understand that obviousness must be analyzed from the perspective of a
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`person of ordinary skill in the relevant art at the time the invention was made. In
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`analyzing obviousness, I understand that it is important to understand the scope of
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`the claims, the level of skill in the relevant art, the scope and content of the prior
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`art, the differences between the prior art and the claims, and any secondary
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`considerations of non-obviousness. I have not been asked to study or analyze any
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`secondary considerations of non-obviousness. As discussed further below, the prior
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`art references describe systems that are so different from what is claimed that these
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`do not form a basis for an obviousness determination of the claimed subject matter.
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`27.
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`I also understand that a party seeking to invalidate a patent as obvious must
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`demonstrate that a person of ordinary skill in the art would have been motivated to
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`combine the teachings of the prior art references to achieve the claimed invention,
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`that the person of ordinary skill in the art would have had a reasonable expectation
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`of success in doing so, and that such determinations are evaluated as of the time
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`the invention was made. I understand that this temporal requirement prevents the
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`forbidden use of hindsight. I also understand that rejections for obviousness cannot
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`be sustained by mere conclusory statements and that Petitioners must show some
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`reason why a person of ordinary skill in the art would have thought to combine
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`particular available elements of knowledge, as evidenced by the prior art, to reach
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`the claimed invention. I also understand that the motivation to combine inquiry
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`focuses heavily on the scope and content of the prior art and the level of ordinary
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`skill in the pertinent art.
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`28.
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`In arriving at the opinions set forth herein, I have considered questions of
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`obviousness from the perspective of a person of ordinary skill in the relevant art at
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`the time the invention was made and have given consideration to (1) the scope and
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`content of the prior art; (2) the differences between the prior art and the asserted
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`claims; and (3) the level of ordinary skill in the pertinent art. I have been informed
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`and understand that the obviousness analysis requires a comparison of the properly
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`construed claim language to the prior art on a limitation-by-limitation basis.
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`IV. BACKGROUND TOPICS
`29. The ‘716 patent relates to “[m]ethods and apparatus for generating a
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`strongly-ionized plasma.”9 I understand that IPR2014-01099 was instituted to
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`consider the novelty of claims 1-11 and 33 of the ‘716 patent over Wang, et al.,
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`U.S. Patent 6,413,382 (Ex. 1104) (“Wang”). I also understand that IPR2014-01100
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`was instituted to consider the obviousness of claims 12 and 13 in view of the
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`combined teachings of Wang and Lantsman, U.S. Patent 6,190,512 (Ex. 1105)
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`(“Lantsman”). I further understand that IPR2014-00807 was instituted to consider
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`the obviousness of claims 14-18 and 25-32 in view of the combined teachings of
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`Wang and Kudryavtsev, et al, Ionization relaxation in a plasma produced by a
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`pulsed inert-gas discharge, Sov. Phys. Tech. Phys. 28(1), January 1983 (IPR2014-
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`00807 Ex. 1205) (“Kudryavtsev”). I also understand that IPR2014-00808 was
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`instituted to consider the obviousness of claims 19 and 20 in view of the combined
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`teachings of Wang, Kudryavtsev, and Lantsman; of claim 21 in view of the
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`combined teachings of Wang and Kudryavtsev; and of claims 22-24 in view of the
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`combined teachings of Wang, Kudryavtsev, and Mozgrin et al., High-Current Low-
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`Pressure Quasi- Stationary Discharge in a Magnetic Field: Experimental
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`Research, Plasma Physics Reports, Vol. 21, No. 5, 1995 (Ex. 1103) (“Mozgrin”).
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`In this section I provide some background information useful to understanding
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`these cited references and the subject matter claimed in the ‘716 patent.
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`                                                                                                                          
`9 Ex. 1101 at Abstract.
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`A. Voltage, current, impedance and power.
`30. As is commonly known, when a voltage “V” is applied across an impedance
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`“I,” an electric field is generated that forces a current I to flow through the
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`impedance. For purely resistive impedance, the relation between the voltage and
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`the resultant current is given by: V = I * R.
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`31. A common analogy is that voltage is like a pressure that causes charged
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`particles like electrons and ions to flow (i.e., current), and the amount of current
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`depends on the magnitude of the pressure (voltage) and the amount of resistance or
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`impedance that inhibits the flow. The ‘716 patent and the cited references
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`considered here involve the flow of current through an assembly having a pair of
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`electrodes with a plasma in the region between them. The effective impedance of
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`such an assembly varies greatly with the density of charged particles in the region
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`between the electrodes. Although such an impedance is more complex than the
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`simple resistive impendence of the above equation, the general relation is similar: a
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`voltage between the electrode assembly forces a current to flow through the
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`plasma, such that the amount of current is determined by the amplitude of the
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`voltage and the impedance of the plasma. Thus, the current through the electrode
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`assembly increases with the electrode voltage and, for a given electrode voltage,
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`the current will increase with a drop in the impedance of the plasma.
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`32. The impedance varies with the charge density of the plasma: With a high
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`density of charged particle the impedance is relatively small, and with a low
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`density of charged particles the impedance is relatively large. Simply, the more
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`ions and electrons to carry the charge, the less resistance. However, the charges
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`and fields react with each other in a very complicated manner.
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`33.
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`In response to the electric field in the region between the electrodes (i.e., the
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`voltage across the electrodes), all charged particles in the region (the electrons and
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`positive ions) feel a force that propels them to flow. This flow is an electric current
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`“I.” The amount of curre