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`Electric Automobile
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`Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`Ernest Henry Wakefield, Ph.D.
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`INTERNATIONAL "
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`FORD 1219
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` Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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`Wakefield, Ernest Henry, 19 15-
`History of the electric automobile : hybrid electric vehicles / Ernest Henry
`Wakefield.
`p. cm.
`Includes bibliographical references and index.
`ISBN 0-7680-0125-0
`1. Automobiles, E1ectric——History. 2. Hybrid Electric Cars—-History. I. Title.
`TL220.W343 1988
`629.22'93--DC21
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`98-3420CIP
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`Vehicles pictured on cover (clockwise from upper left): Esoro H301 Family hybrid electric car; General Motors
`1987 Sunraycer; American fuel cell bus; Woods’ dual-powered 14—hp coupé of l9l7.
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`Copyright © 1998 Ernest ll. Wakefield
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`ISBN 0-7680-0125-0
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`All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America
`
`Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is
`granted by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided
`that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special
`requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0125-0/98 $.50.
`,
`(
`
`Society of Automotive Engineers
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`Phone: (724) 776-4841
`Fax: (724) 776-5760
`E—mail: publications @ sae.org
`http://www.sae.org
`
`FORD 1219
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`Essays and Conversations About Strategies for Creating an Electric VehicleIndustry
`Scott A. Cronk
`
`(Order No. R-148)
`
`Electric Vehicles
`Driving Towards Commercialization
`Edited by Ron Sims and Bradford Bates
`(Order No. P'I‘-58)
`
`Other SAE books of interest on this topic:
`
`Alternative Cars in the 21”‘ Century
`Robert Q. Riley
`
`(Order No. R-139) Building the E-motive Industry
`
`For information on these or other related books, contact:
`I Qaciety of Automotive Engineers Inc.
`400 Commonwealth Drive
`Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
`Phone: (724) 776.4970
`Fax: (724) 776-0790
`E—mail: publications @ sae.org
`
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`Table of Contents
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`Foreword ........................................................................................................................... .. xv
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`Preface ............................................................................................................................. .. xvii
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`Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................... .. xix
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`Chapter 1 Background for the Hybrid Electric Horseless Carriage .................... ..1
`Establishing the Principles ofElectricity .......................................................... 1
`Development of the Bicycle and the Tricycle ................................................ .. 3
`Tires and Batteries ...........................................................................................4
`The Lead-Acid Battery and the First Electric Cars ...................................... .. 6
`Generation and Distribution of Electricity ...................................................... ..7
`Early Transportation Problems ....................................................................... .. 9
`The Modern Approach ................................................................................ .. 13
`Notes ............................................................................................................ .. 13
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`References ................................................................................................... .. 14
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`Chapter 2
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`The History of the Petro-Electric Vehicle ............................................ .. 17
`Competition for Nascent Power Systems .................................................... .. 18
`The First Petro-Electric Vehicle .................................................................. .. 19
`The Belgian and the French Petro-Electric Cars ......................................... .. 21
`Other European Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................... .. 23
`The Lohner-Porsche Hybrid Electric Vehicle .............................................. .. 24
`The Auto-Mixte Petro-Electric Car ............................................................ ..25
`
`The Mercedes-Mixte Petro-Electric Car .................................................... ..27
`The Krieger Petro-Electric Car ................................................................... ..27
`Early American Petro-Electric Vehicles ...................................................... .. 27
`The Baker and the Woods Petro-Electric Vehicles ..................................... .. 29
`The Jeffery Petro-Electric Automobile ........................................................ .. 32
`Notes ............................................................................................................ .. 32
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`References ................................................................................................... .. 33
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`History ofthe Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`Chapter 3
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`Chapter 4
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`Recent Petr0- and Natural Gas-Electric Car Systems ..........................35
`The Minicars Petro-Electric Drive Train ..................................................... .. 36
`Wouk’s Petro-Electric Automobile ................................................................ 36
`The Linear Alpha Petro-Electric Van ............................................................ 39
`The General Motors Petro-Electric Vehicle ................................................. 40
`Trailer Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................... 42
`The McKee Engineering Company Range Extender ................................. .. 43
`Aronson’s Petro-Electric Silver Volt ............................................................ 45
`The Brobeck Petro-Electric Automobile ...................................................... 46
`Briggs & Strratton-Marathon Petro-Electric Automobile ............................. 48
`The General Electric/U.S. Department of Energy
`Petro-Electric Automobile .......................................................................... 49
`The Mclnnis Petro—E1ectric Car ................................................................. .. 52
`The 1993 Ford Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Challenge ........................... 52
`The University ofIllinois Entry ..................................................................... 55
`The Natural Gas—Electric Multi—Powered Automobile ............................... .. 60
`Note 1—Additional Comments ..................................................................... 61
`Note 2—A Petro-Electric Bus ..................................................................... 64
`Note 3—The Briggs & Stratton Hybrid Electric Vehicle ............................. 65
`References .................................................................................................... 67
`
`Modern International Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................ .. 69
`British Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................... 69
`Canadian Petro—Electric Automobiles ........................................................... 70
`French Petro-Electric Vehicles ..................................................................... 72
`German Petro—Electric Automobiles ............................................................. 72
`A Robert Bosch Hybrid Electric Automobile ............................................... 72
`The Volkswagen-Electricité Neuchateloise S.A. System ........................... .. 74
`Opel Twin Petro-Assist Automobile ............................................................. 76
`European Ford Petro-Electric Car ................................................................ 78
`The Volkswagen Petro-Electric Car—The Chico ....................................... 80
`Japanese Petro—Electric Vehicles .................................................................. 81
`Swedish Petro-Electric Automobiles ............................................................ 81
`Petro—E1ectric Cars of the Former Soviet Union .......................................... 85
`A Swiss Petro-Electric Motorcar ................................................................. 85
`Note l—Miss Purity Participants ................................................................ 88
`Note 2—The Otto Engine........................................................................... .. 88
`References .................................................................................................. .. 90
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`Chapter 5
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`Experiments with Non-Petro-Electric Vehicles .....................................93
`Carli’s Electric-Spring Tricycle ...................................................................... 94
`Battery-Battery Automobiles .........................
`........................................... 97
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`Fuel Cell-B attery Powered Automobiles ..................................................... .. 98
`The Family of Fuel Cells ............................................................................ .. 102
`Aluminum-Air Fuel Cell with Lead-Acid Battery Van .............................. .. 104
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`Noncontact Inductively Charged Moving Vehicles .................................... .. 107
`Summary .................................................................................................... .. 110
`Note 1—The General Motors Fuel Cell—Battery Powered Van ................ .. 110
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`Note 2—The Canadian Hydrogen—Fueled Bus .......................................... .. 111
`Note 3—Mirai I ....................................................................................... .. 114
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`Note 4—'I‘he Chrysler Fuel Cell Powered Vehicle .................................... .. 114
`References ................................................................................................. .. 116
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`The Flywheel-Electric Vehicle .............................................................. .. 119
`Flywheel———Institut fur Kraftfahrwesen ..................................................... .. 121
`Flywheel Work at Other Sites .................................................................... .. 123
`The AIResearch Manufacturing Company Flywheel-Electric Vehicle ..... .. 125
`American Flywheel Systems ..................................................................... .. 128
`Continuing Work on Flywheels for Transportation ..................................... .. 129
`Summary Articles on Flywheel Energy Storage ........................................ .. 134
`Note l—Another Flywheel System ........................................................... .. 135
`Note 2——Gyroscopic Effects ..................................................................... ..135
`Note 3-The Parry People Mover ............................................................ .. 137
`Note 4—Flywheel Energy Storage in Japan .............................................. .. 139
`References ................................................................................................. .. 139
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`Chapter 6
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`Chapter 7
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`Gas Turbine-Electric Motorcars .......................................................... .. 141
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`Chapter 8
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`History of the Gas Turbine ......................................................................... .. 141
`Chrysler and Volvo Motorcars ................................................................... .. 142
`The Chrysler Turbine-Flywheel Car—The Patriot ................................... .. 143
`The Volvo Gas Turbine Electric Car .......................................................... .. 144
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`The Rosen Motors "[urbine—F1ywheel Power Train for Automobiles ......... .. 150
`Note l—The Whittle Jet Engine ................................................................ .. 152
`Note 2—Ch1ysler Gas Turbine Cars ......................................................... .. 152
`References ................................................................................................. .. 153
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`The Origin, Operation, and Applications of the Stirling Engine ..... .. 155
`Robert Stirling ............................................................................................ .. 155
`Subsequent Development of the Stirling Engine ........................................ .. 157
`Eighty Years Later ..................................................................................... .. 158
`Sterling Thermal Motors’ Solar Power Conversion ................................... .. 164
`General Motors Stir-Lec I .,........................................................................ .. 167
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`Stephenson’s Conclusions on Hybrid Electric Vehicles ............................. .. 168
`Notes .......................................................................................................... .. 170
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`References ............................................................... .-. ................................. .. 172
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`Chapter 9
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`Chapter 10
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`On the Road to an Emissionless Automobile .................................... .. 175
`Competing with Gasoline-Powered Cars ................................................... .. 175
`Opening the Window for Emissionless Cars .............................................. .. 177
`The Influence of Hans Tholstrup ............................................................... .. 179
`Robert Stempel Becomes Chairman and CEO of General Motors ............. 181
`Notes .......................................................................................................... .. 182
`References ................................................................................................. .. 182
`
`Photovoltaic Cells and Their Status .................................................... .. 185
`History of the Photovoltaic Cell ................................................................... 186
`Gallium-Arsenide Solar Cells ..................................................................... .. 190
`Note 1—More on Gallium-Arsenide Solar Cells ......................................... 190
`Note 2——Economic Considerations ............................................................ .. 191
`Note 3—Solar Cells in Boats ..................................................................... .. 191
`Note 4-—The Wave Theory of Light ......................................................... .. 191
`References ................................................................................................. .. 192
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`Chapter 11
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`Sun Areas of the World and the Atmosphere ..................................... .. 195
`Geographic Considerations in Solar-Electric Vehicle Design ..................... .. 195
`Solar~Assist and Solar-Dorninant Motorcars ............................................. .. 200
`Notes .......................................................................................................... .. 202
`References ................................................................................................. .. 202
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`Chapter 12
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`Chapter 13
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`History of Solar-Electric Vehicles ........................................................ .. 203
`Background ................................................................................................ .. 203
`Freeman’s British Solar-Electric Vehicle ................................................... .. 205
`The General Motors Sunraycer ................................................................ .. 210
`The MIT Solarmobile Solectria IV............................................................ .. 211
`Ford Motor Company of Australia Sunchaser.......................................... .. 213
`Electrical and Mechanical Features of a Solarmobile ................................ .. 214
`American Solar-Assist Electric Motorcars ................................................ .. 217
`1996 Solar-Battery Ford Festiva, Designed for Saminco Inc. .................. .. 218
`Japenese Solar-Assist Automobiles ........................................................... .. 218
`References ................................................................................................. .. 220
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`The Trans-Australian World Solar Challenge Race——l987 ............. ..223
`Background ................................................................................................ .. 223
`The Race Begins ....................................................................................... .. 227
`Entries and Results of the 1987 Australian World Solar
`Challenge Race ....................................................................................... «.235
`Comments from Winning Team Members ................................................... 237
`Performance of Cars ................................................................................. ..238
`Other Vehicles .................................................
`........................................ .. 246
`References ................................................................................................. .. 249
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`Chapter 14 American Tour de S0l—1992 ................................................................. ..251
`Background ................................................................................................ .. 251
`The American Tour de Sol Race .............................................................. ..254
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`Vehicle Range Increases with Time .......................................................... .. 262
`References ................................................................................................. .. 269
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`Chapter 15 Solar Race Car Design: The Late Twentieth Century ..................... ..271
`Changes in Design Standards .................................................................... .. 271
`Australian World Solar Challenge Race—-1993 ......................................... .. 276
`The Honda Dream ..................................................................................... .. 278
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`Ingenieurschule Biel Spirit of Biel III ....................................................... .. 281
`The Motor-Wheel of the Swiss Spirit of Biel III ...................................... .. 282
`A Commercial Market for Solar-Powered Cars ....................................... .. 287
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`Starting a Solarrnobile Business—Traits of the Entrepreneur ................... .. 289
`The Sports Solarmobile .............................................................................. .. 290
`Influence of Sunraycer, Spirit of Biel III, and Dream
`on Design Today ....................................................................... .7 ............. .. 291
`References ................................................................................................. .. 294
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`Chapter 16 Final Thoughts and Coda ....................................................................... ..297
`The Race for an Emissionless Vehicle ....................................................... .. 297
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`Reviewing the Past to Better Understand the Future ................................ .. 300
`Conclusion .................................................................................................. .. 302
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`References ................................................................................................. .. 304
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`Appendix A The Hughes Inductive Charger System ............................................. ..305
`How Magne-Charge Works ...................................................................... .. 308
`Electrical Performance .............................................................................. .. 310
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`Availability and Price ................................................................................. .. 310
`References ................................................................................................. .. 312
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`Appendix B Ultracapacitors for Electric Automobiles ........................................... ..313
`References ................................................................................................. .. 316
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`Index ................................................................................................................................ .. 317
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`About the Author ........................................................................................................... .. 331
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`CHAPTER 2
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`The History of the
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`Petro-Electric Vehicle
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`For more than four generations, experimenters have assembled electric vehicles bearing a
`supplemental energy source for the enhancement of range. Historically, this extra energy has
`been supplied by springs, flywheels, fuel cells, petroleum or natural gas-powered engines, and,
`most recently, solar cells.
`In a recent study, the U.S. Department of Energy identified 81
`worldwide attempts in which one or two hybrid electric vehicles were made to yield extra
`range.‘ Therefore, we may conclude that range limitation has long been identified. To over-
`come this deficiency, two common approaches have been exploited: 1) to develop batteries
`with greater specific energy, and 2) to proceed with the hybrid principle.
`
`The questions of batteries are discussed in Chapters 10 and 11 of History of the Electric
`Automobile: Battery-Only Powered Cars2 and will receive little treatment here. Figure 2.1
`illustrates two types of hybrid electric vehicles. The drawing to the left is a series type of
`hybrid electric vehicle. It contains an engine-generator, batteries, and an electric motor, the
`torque from which drives the wheels. Energy from the fuel is continually being transformed
`and stored as chemical energy and potential electric energy in the batteries. In contrast, with
`the parallel hybrid electric system, the petro-engine may uniquely drive the wheels, or together
`or separately the electric motor supplies torque to the wheels.
`
`In general for both series and parallel hybrid electric vehicles, the supplemental energy source
`may be any of the five sources cited above. Years ago, I discussed the most recent, solar
`assist.3 Because series and parallel systems both have possible economic niches, if indeed
`hybrid electric vehicles are ever viable, both series and parallel types may be found in service.‘‘
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`ONE-WAY CLUTCH
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`FUEL TANK
`ENGINE
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`GENERATOR '
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`POWER CONDITIONER
`MOTOR
`CONTROL
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`TRANSMISSION
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`FUEL TANK
`NGINE
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`MOTOR
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`CONTROL
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`TRANSMISSION
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`BATTERY PACK
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`BATTERY PACK
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`SERIES
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`PARALLEL
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`Figure 2.]. In a series hybrid electric car (left), the engine drives a generator charging
`a battery.
`In a parallel system (right), the engine may directly couple the wheels.
`(Briggs & Stratton, 14 August 1995)
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`Competition for Nascent Power Systems
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`Only four years after Trouvé’s original electric vehicle, described in Chapter 1, the initial
`gasoline-powered vehicle was tested in 1885. While 55 years would elapse from the operation
`of Thomas Davenp0rt’s electric motor shown in Ref. 2, the first to perform useful work,5
`until Trouve”s electric tricycle, the time span from N.A. Otto’s four-cycle internal combustion
`engine of 1867 and a vehicle so powered was only 18 years.
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`From 1890 until 1905, a period of approximately 15 years, electric vehicles, internal combus-
`tion powered automobiles, and steam cars were highly competitive in America. On the other
`hand, in Europe, internal combustion cars were preferred from the beginning for many rea-
`sons:
`l) the well-built Roman roads linking cities already existed in many parts of western
`Europe and thus range was important; 2) military-inspired highways were well maintained; 3) in
`contrast, roads linking American cities were largely unimproved and, with long periods of
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`The History of the Petra-Electric Vehicle
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`engines; 5) Edison, Tesla, and Westinghouse gave later—evolving America a leadership in elec-
`tric power, while Europe was more oriented to earlier developed steam power; 6) with a range
`sufficient for the small American cities of that time, the electric vehicle could flourish; and
`7) possibly, too, with less regulation always present in a frontier-inspired society, entrepreneur-
`ship could more readily prosper.
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`Although an all electric vehicle could potentially displace only a small percentage of apetroleum—
`fueled personal vehicle market, it is presently perceived as occupying a restricted niche. On
`the other hand, the hybrid electric automobile is less subject to range limitation. With as little as
`20% of the petroleum fuel of an internal combustion automobile, a hybrid electric vehicle may
`be discerned as viable.5 The market is expected to make its own judgment. As the philoso-
`pher George Santayana wrote7:
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`“Those who know not the past are condemned to repeat it.”
`
`Therefore, what does history relate about the petro-electric drive system, two sample vehicles
`of which were ordered by the U.S. Department of Energy under the 1976 Electric Vehicle
`Act, and the many petro-electric cars for which a purchase order was issued by the City of
`Los Angeles in 1992?
`
`The gasoline-electric car, currently referred to as the petro-electric vehicle, initially was an
`attempt to combine the high efficiency of the electric drive train with the remarkable energy
`storage of petroleum fuels. Presently, electric cars have a drive train efficiency of 90%,
`whereas a similar figure for the internal combustion automobile is probably 15%—a factor of
`nearly six in favor of electricity. As for fuel of both systems, the lead-acid battery in its storage
`of electric energy requires 1 kg (2.2 lb) for l25 Btu.” On the other hand, 1 kg (2.2 lb) of
`gasoline provides 45,300 Btu—a factor of 360 in favor of gasoline. When relative drive-train
`efficiencies are considered, there remains an enhancement factor of 70 to 80 in favor of
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`gasoline. That large number almost shouts the reason why internal combustion cars will be
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`here for many years. However, muting the above statement, and particularly in the last
`decade of the twentieth century, is the growing air pollution of urban areas largely as a result
`of the ubiquitous internal combustion vehicle. The petro-electric vehicle, the thought goes,
`could be petro—powered in country operation and electrically powered in urban regions, with
`the parallel type, hybrid electric automobile. If of series construction, the vehicle might have a
`low-polluting, constant—speed internal combustion engine driving a small generator that is con-
`tinually replenishing the battery. Power from the battery would supply the electric motor.
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`The First Petro-Electric Vehicle
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`Almost surely the first petro-electric car was built by Justus B. Entz, chief engineer of the Electric
`Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia. The date was 4 May 1897, as the chalkboard
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`drawing in the Pope Manufacturing Company indicates in Figure 2.2. His concept was not the
`simple approach ofthe early European designers of an internal combustion engine powering a
`generator which in turn charged a battery that drove the mot0r——a series type, As Hiram
`Percy Maxim, who early designed and built both electric and gasoline-powered automobiles,
`describes this vehicle:3
`
`Entz proposed a generator with a revolving field as well as a revolving armature, This
`(assembly) was made to act as a clutch. When the armature of this generator was short-
`circuited, its armature and revolving field became electrically locked together, and the
`engine drove the carriage through this locked clutch on what corresponds to high gear.
`When a grade was encountered, or for any other reason more driving torque was required.
`Entz eased off the short circuiting more or less, which permitted the Clutch to slip. This
`slipping generated a current, and this current was fed to the electric motor, which was
`thereby enabled to help out the direct drive from the engine.
`After this explanation, Maxim, as did many modern designers, wondered why all this electric
`gear was required when a simple ‘gear box’ (the transmission) could obviate the above and
`yield the drive system of a modern electric car.
`In 1898, all was ready for testing the new car. Maxim, Entz, and a mechanic drove ‘slug-
`gishly,’ the former relates, from the Pope factory to Capitol Street in Hartford, Connecticut.
`While on the street, Maxim left the vehicle for some reason and his foot caught on a wire to the
`arnmeter. This breaking of the electrical circuit caused an electric arc to pierce the copper
`
`-A
`
`:'~:\n~u=':.x N0"l"UH t-.=u:w\».tf.'
`-. :":ms§t'~\:naa;
`I11’.-mu TX.
`_ .r'Nu." 1-zuunsean rri
`\
`'
`
`lv‘|z\,-n'- 5] -'.|'.'
`
`(Ref 8, copyright 1937
`Figure 2.2. Entz’s blackboard masterpiece of the petro-electric car.
`by Harper & Brothers; copyright renewed 1964 by Percy.Maxim Lee; reprinted by
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`The History of the Petra-Electric Vehicle
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`gasoline tank, and a stream of gasoline was ignited, burning the vehicle with the 7 gallons
`(26 liters) of contained gasoline. The Pope Manufacturing Company made no more petro-
`electric vehicles. However, Entz’s idea did not die, according to Maxim. The concept even-
`tually became the Owen Magnetic Can
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`The Belgian and the French Petro—Electric Cars
`
`To implement the claimed advantages of the hybrid electric systems previously cited, both the
`Pieper establishment in Liege, Belgium, and the Vendovelli & Priestly Electric Carriage Com-
`pany of France announced petro-electzric vehicles at the Paris Salon of 1899.9 In the Pieper
`vehicle, a small, air-cooled gasoline engine was forward and coupled to an electric motor
`powered by lead-acid batteries.1° (See Figure 2.3.) Initially, the gasoline engine was started
`by the electric motor (probably among the first electric starters). When the vehicle was
`standing or coasting, the engine charged the battery. In contrast, when a hill was encountered
`requiring power greater than the air-cooled engine could provide, as the carriage slowed,
`additional electrical power flowed to the motor from the battery which provided supplemen-
`tary torque to the rear wheels. In these early days, if the engine failed, and at this time all
`internal combustion engines were ‘cranky’ (a term used at the time), the reliable electric motor
`could be the power source to bring home the carriage!
`
`Figure 2.3. The Pieper Stanhope. (Ref 9)
`
`
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`.._._.-.:___.-......_..._...-.___... m._.j__..,mj___:__*._m..:_.--..._4...
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`History of the Electric Automobile: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
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`The Pieper vehicle was of the parallel configuration. In contrast, the Vendovelli & Priestly
`carriage was of the series type and was three—wl1eeled. The two rear—wheels were each
`powered by a separate electric motor, the batteries being carried beneath the carriage to
`yield a range of 40 miles (64 km). For longer trips, a portable 308-lb (140-kg) engine-
`generator was added, consisting of a 3/4—hp De Dion-Bouton engine coupled to a generator
`capable of supplying continuously 10 amps at 110 volts (1.1 kW of power) to the battery.
`The engine/generator, the article stated, was also capable of supplying power sufficient to
`illuminate 15 l0-candle (l30—lumens) lamps, a phrasing used by the U.S. Army in purchase
`of its first electric vehicle in 1898 from the Woods Electric Vehicle Company of Chicago, as
`cited in Ref. 2.
`
`Particularly unique to the Vendovelli hansom, however, was the steering mechanism. Steering
`was effected by utilizing the reversibility of the differential gears. By acting on the latter, one
`wheel revolved faster than the other, and the vehicle would turn with a short radius; indeed, the
`hansom can be made to pivot on itself by an action associated with the steering wheel before
`the driver. For braking the hansom, placing the controller in the ofi‘ position also applies a
`friction—brake to a cast—iron pulley on the motor shaft. Figure 2.4 illustrates this French han-
`som. Figure 2.5 sketches the steering details.
`
`Figure 2.4. The Vendovelli & Priestley hansom
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`The History of the Petro—Electric Vehicle
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`Figure 2.5. Method of steering through the velocity of a variable wheel.
`(Scientific American Supplement. Ref 11)
`
`Other European Hybrid Electric Vehicles
`
`Because of the frequent impassability of American roads and the confinement of electric
`vehicles to the small cities of that time, all electrics had a better environment in which to thrive.
`
`This was not true in Europe where, for military reasons, urban areas were linked with well-
`developed highways, and inter-urban driving was routinely partaken by early drivers. While
`Camille Jenatzy, discussed in Chapter 15 of Ref. 2 on electric car racing, showed an early
`hybrid electric car a