HYBRID POWER UNiT DEVELOPMENT
`FOR FiAT MULTIPLA VEHICLE
`
`981124
`
`A. Caraceni, G. Cipolla
`ELASIS ScPA - Motori
`
`R. Barbiero
`FIAT AUTO - VAMIA
`
`Copyright @ 1998 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
`
`ABSTRACT
`
`In the "scenario" of increasing concerns for
`environmental pollution, hybrid vehicles will play a
`significant role in the near future. Compared to electric
`vehicles, the hybrid ones have an unrestricted driving
`range, higher performance and transport capability, still
`fulfilling ZEV emission regulation.
`
`The hybrid vehicle features a power train that integrates
`a thermal engine with an electric motor. Among the
`several possible configurations for hybrid vehicle, the
`parallel hybrid one has been chosen for the FIAT
`MULTIPLA, for the following reasons:
`
`°
`
`=
`
`=
`
`lower weight and volume of the electric unit to obtain
`the same driving mission;
`
`higher global efficiency of the system, due to direct
`thermal to mechanical energy conversion;
`
`a better vehicle performance (acceleration and max
`speed), thanks to the contribution of both motors to
`traction.
`
`In the development of a hybrid parallel concept, the
`critical aspects to be overcome are related to the system
`mechanical complexity and the simultaneous control of
`the two motors.
`
`In this paper the Fiat Auto and Elasis approach to the
`hybrid vehicle is presented with particular reference to
`the powertrain unit and its control strategies.
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`In the last years the European legislation and
`environmental issues have focused the attention to the
`Page 1 of 8
`inconvenience produced by traffic density in our most
`
`29
`
`congested European urban centers. Electric vehicles, as
`reported by several studies performed in different
`European cities, could substitute less than 10 % of the
`vehicles in circulation in the cities, provided that they can
`assure a real range of more than 80 kin. On the contrary
`hybrid vehicle would allow a substitution of a bigger
`portion of the vehicle city park, thanks to their "range
`extension" and "peak performance" features.
`
`The hybrid vehicle seems to be a very promising answer
`to today’s different demands such as:
`
`°
`
`°
`
`¯
`
`°
`
`°
`
`°
`
`.
`
`free driving in emission protected zones
`
`ability to match different condition in urban or extra
`urban driving
`
`unrestricted range and transport capabilities like
`thermal vehicles
`
`same or similar driving characteristics as a
`conventional vehicle
`
`reduced dependency on batteries
`
`use of existing infrastructure
`
`commercially interesting image.
`
`The mass production feasibility of the electric vehicle
`remains nowadays a big concern, primarily because of
`the battery problems. In case of the hybrid vehicle,
`battery dependency is reduced and so the hybrid vehicle
`is more acceptable to the public.
`
`Conventional vehicles, especially those equipped with
`gasoline engines, have lower fuel economy and higher
`emissions especially in short range distance driving
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`during warm-up phases, but offer high performance, long
`
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`distance and high transportation capability.
`
`Although hybrid vehicles suffer from a higher weight if
`compared to conventional internal combustion driven
`and pure electric vehicles, they may offer a possibility of
`satisfying personal and commercial needs with lower
`emissions and higher global efficiency.
`
`On the other hand hybrid vehicles have higher
`complexity than their counterparts. The main
`disadvantages can be summarized as:
`
`¯
`
`°
`
`higher number of components
`
`higher weight
`
`¯ more sophisticated
`strategies
`
`vehicle electronic
`
`control
`
`° higher costs.
`
`The hybrid powertrain structure and power size must be
`carefully selected to minimize the above mentioned
`disadvantages. Hybrid propulsion systems can be
`arranged, in a variety of configurations, in two basic
`categories: series and parallel (Fig 1).
`
`SERIES
`
`Thermal
`engine
`
`_ ~._
`
`Motor
`Generator
`
`Batteries
`
`Thermal
`engine
`
`PARALLEL
`
`Motor --
`Generator
`
`The global objectives of Fiat MULTIPLA hybrid vehicle
`and its powertrain subsystems characteristics are
`discussed in the following paragraphs.
`
`MAIN VEHICLE OBJECTIVES
`
`The goal of the present research activity is to design a
`hybrid vehicle, suitable for mass production, derived
`from the "MULTIPLA" equipped with a 1.6 litres gasoline
`engine, with similar characteristics as far as it concerns
`comfort, habitability and safety.
`
`The daily vehicle mission could be summarized as 105
`km per day with 1/3 on urban driving in hybrid mode, 1/3
`in pure electric and 1/3 in hybrid mode on extraurban
`driving.
`
`The emission levels must be equivalent to ZEV in pure
`electric and according to the European limits for year
`2005 (EEC phase IV) in hybrid or thermal mode. Tab 1
`shows the main vehicle performance requirements.
`
`Performance
`requirements
`
`Hybrid Thermal Electric
`
`Top speed (km/h)
`
`> 150
`
`> 100
`
`Continuous speed (km/h)
`
`> 130
`
`> 130
`
`> 80
`
`Acceleration 0 - 100 km/h
`(s)
`
`<18
`
`>30
`
`0 - 80 km/h
`
`<12
`
`<20
`
`0-50km/h
`
`<6
`
`’ <9
`
`<40
`
`<13
`
`Acceleration
`3’~ gear (s)
`
`40 - 80 km/h
`
`<10
`
`Fuel consumption
`(ECE+EUDC) (I/100km)
`
`<10
`
`Emission
`
`ECE IV
`
`ECE III
`
`ZEV
`
`Batteries
`
`~>
`
`--~ ~--~ Regenerative power
`
`~1~ Engine power
`
`In this paper the impact of these requirements on the
`powertrain will be examined.
`
`Table 1
`
`Figure 1
`
`POSSIBLE HYBRID CONFIGURATION
`
`In the series arrangement, a}l energy from thermal
`engine is converted into electricity. The parallel
`arrangement has in addition a direct mechanical
`connection to the transmission driveline which could
`include a conventional gearbox. The topology and the
`details of a hybrid propulsion system will depend heavily
`on the mission that the vehicle is intended to fulfill and on
`the constrains of today’s technology availability for mass
`production.
`Page 2 of 8
`
`Throughout a preliminary investigation with
`mathematical simulation models, the deployment of
`overall objectives has been performed into subsystems
`specification as a function of possible powertrain
`configurations. For each of the possible solutions a
`weighted analysis of positive and negative aspects has
`been carried out.
`
`3O
`
`The results of this analysis can be summarized as
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`follows:
`
`Dual mode - The addition of an independent electric
`power train on the thermal vehicle leads to the simplest
`hybrid configuration. The two power trains operate in
`alternative, to meet the requirements of the circulation in
`typical urban areas (electric traction) or those of the
`extraurban missions (thermal engine).
`
`Typical mission: extraurban driving, with
`operation in ZEV urban area.
`
`limited
`
`Advantages:
`
`simplicity
`
`¯
`
`no integration of the two powertrain possibility to
`have a two axles drive system in case of critical
`mobility
`
`Disadvantages:
`
`o critical layout due to the two traction axles, with
`structure
`and
`considerable modification
`on
`mechanics;
`
`not optimized system in terms of energy
`consumption and emissions
`
`Series Hybrid - The thermal engine coupled to an electric
`generator is used as a generating unit and motion is
`assured by an electric power train.
`
`Typical mission: driving in large ZEV urban area
`
`Advantages:
`
`o
`
`small size thermal engine and its utilization within the
`most favorable working conditions in terms of
`efficiency and emissions;
`
`on the same shaft their respective torque to achieve the
`desired performance.
`
`Typical mission: ZEV urban driving and full-performance
`extraurban driving
`
`Advantages:
`
`¯
`
`¯
`
`¯
`
`¯
`
`low installed electric power, related to the urban
`mission
`
`thermal engine can be downsized without penalizing
`vehicle performance leading to a fuel economy
`benefit.
`
`operating range in hybrid mode depending on
`vehicle fuel tank only
`
`addition of electric power to the thermal for peak
`performance
`
`° flexibility in changing the vehicle mission.
`
`Disadvantages:
`
`¯ mechanical complexity
`
`° gearbox and specific coupling interface needed
`
`°
`
`system control complexity due to the management
`necessity of the two propulsion systems.
`
`The vehicle mission and performance, the uncertainties
`of the evolution of the market, and cost constrain,
`requiring a strong attention to the "carry over"
`opportunities among the various production vehicles,
`have led to the choice of the parallel configuration
`(fig.2).
`
`o gearbox is not mandatory
`
`TRAS~,IISSION
`
`o
`
`equal vehicle performance in electric and hybrid
`modes.
`
`Disadvantages:
`
`¯
`
`o
`
`number of installed components which have impact
`on the vehicle in terms of weight, volume and cost
`
`low efficiency over constant speed as a
`consequence of the energy conversions
`
`° performance and operating range limited by battery
`
`high installed electric power
`
`Figure 2
`
`POWERTRAIN DESCRIPTION
`
`Fig. 3 shows the powertrain where the thermal engine,
`the electric motor, the interface and gearbox are visible.
`
`Parallel Hybrid - Thermal engine and electric motor add
`Page 3 of 8
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`31
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`Figure 3
`
`Thermal engine
`
`The thermal engine chosen for this application is the new
`FIRE 1242 16 valves, just in production on the Lancia Y
`and on the Fiat PUNTO. An engine section is visible in
`fig. 4 and fig. 5 shows the engine torque and power
`characteristics.
`
`For the hybrid application some modifications of the
`series production thermal engine are required, mainly in
`the electronic control package which features a drive-by-
`wire system. Engine ECU re-calibration is of course
`necessary to optimize fuel economy, emission and
`driveability for the hybrid application. Table 2 reports the
`main engine characteristics.
`
`......................................................... L .........................................................
`
`ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS
`Table 2
`I i@ZZZZZZZi]I II ZZZZZZZ
`He!g !! ......................................... i670~n? .....................................
`_e..ng.!.~ ........................................ i.~oo..m..rp.. .....................................
`Width
`i 550mm
`D!sp!ace~en! ........................ i!2420m~ ....................................
`N. valve
`i 16
`c.o..~ .p.re.ss!.o...n...r.a.t.!.9. .............. !.!9....2 ..............................................
`!..n.j.~..o,!,t.o...n....s,.ys.,!£.m.. ................... i.,M..P..! ...............................................
`.M,.a.x.~org.u..e. .............................. i.!].5...N..m@,.4..75.0.r.p...m... .............
`Max power
`! 65.5kW@6250rpm
`
`......................................................... ~ .........................................................
`
`The choice of a gasoline engine versus a diesel engine
`has been done mainly because the handicap of the
`diesel engine is the relatively high NOx emission, which
`with today’s technology cannot be reduced to the same
`extent as a gasoline engine equipped with a three-way
`catalyst.
`
`Electric motor and inverter
`
`The electric drive system is based on an induction motor
`with vector control inverter.
`
`Table 3 and table 4 reports the main motor and inverters
`characteristics.
`
`ELECTRIC MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
`
`Table 3
`
`Figure 4
`
`Base speed
`
`Maximum speed at rated power
`
`2500 rpm
`
`9000 rpm
`
`THERMAL ENGINE TORQUE AND POWER
`
`140
`130
`
`120
`110
`
`100
`90
`
`8O
`70
`60
`50
`
`4O
`
`3O
`
`2O
`10
`
`0 --
`
`I
`1000
`
`7C
`
`8C
`
`5(
`
`3(
`
`2(
`
`1(
`
`i
`
`t
`;
`I
`I
`2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
`
`0
`
`Speed (rpm)
`
`Figure 5
`
`Page 4 of 8
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`32
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`

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`INVERTER CHARACTERISTICS
`Table 4
`
`Power switches
`
`Switching frequency
`
`i IBGT
`6 kHz
`
`............................................................................ 4 ..............................................
`
`Power section input voltage
`
`Rated
`
`160 - 260 V
`
`Allowed
`140 - 280 V
` on roi sec: ion Tn ;ui voiiage ........... .........................
`Max input current
`280 A
`
`............................................................................ 4 ..............................................
`
`Weight
`
`L x W x H
`
`17 kg
`
`440x204x176 mm
`
`¯
`
`Fig 6 shows the motor torque and power characteristics
`
`ELECTRIC MOTOR TORQUE AND
`
`140 1-
`
`120 ]
`
`......... \
`
`~Rated power
`
`i ~Peak power
`100 ~
`TO .... Rated Torque
`PO
`"~ 00+
`i..::.:::.:.P.~.~..!~.., w
`~kR
`
`¯
`
`(N
`m) 60
`
`W)
`
`zo
`
`ol
`
`100
`o
`
`I
`200
`o
`
`I
`3011
`o
`
`400 500 600 700 800 90O
`o
`o o o
`o
`o
`SPEED (rpm)
`
`lO0 llO
`oo
`oo
`
`Figure 6
`
`The motor features a low weight, reduced dimensions,
`and high utilization range with good efficiency (fig 7)
`
`Transmission
`
`To minimize modifications and to make the solution
`compatible with the industrial needs, the integration of
`the two engines has been implemented through a
`)arallel axle transmission (fig. 8)
`
`i !, i i
`
`The mechanical coupling between the two axles is
`performed throughout a toothed belt. An electromagnetic
`clutch has been designed and manufactured to the
`connection and disconnection of the thermal engine.
`This allows for an automatic switching from electric to
`hybrid mode during vehicle operation, based on the drive
`train control strategies The transmission to the vehicle
`wheels is performed by a normal production manually
`shifted 5 speed gearbox.
`
`The main results of a simulation activity on vehicle
`performance with the above described powertrain
`components is shown in table 5.
`
`PERFORMANCE HYBRID i THERMAL i ELECTRIC i REFER.
`
`VEHICLE
`i ic°Nv"
`Top speed (kin/h) 176; i 1 116 i173
`
`Electric motor and inverter mesured efficiency
`1st quadrant @ voltage 240 [V]
`
`....................... "..;::~ .......... ~; Ti ....... ~~:~ ....... ~ ..................... i ....... i~:;i ......
`i ~ i
`i km/h
`
`Accelerati°n i 0- 80(s)
`i km/h
`
`10"5
`
`
`
`i 17"9 ! 28"0 i 8’3 i
`
`{ i ....... ....... ....... .........
`
`75
`8"3
`Acceleration, 40- 80in 3~ (s)i’ km/h
`17"6’ 21"0i!
`
`250 750
`
`110
`90
`70
`50 Torque [Nm]
`
`30
`
`10
`
`12501750225027503500 500
`Speed [rpm] ’ s5oO65oo
`
`Figure 7
`
`The motor, the inverter and the battery management
`have been designed for the application to the Fiat 600
`electric vehicle, under development at Fiat Auto and
`Elasis
`
`’~,~;i~i~;iio;~i~~ .......... YEUT ....... ~;i ........ ( ..................... T ....... i~;i~ .......
`(
`)
`in4" (s) ( krn/h
`)
`"~cceie;aiion"("’~U’:i~;6 .......... i~; ~""’) ..................... ) ..................... ) ....... i’~Tg’ ......
`i
`(
`
`i
`
`i
`
`in 5" (s) i km/h
`
`Table 5
`
`VEHICLE OPERATING MODES
`
`The driver can select between the following four
`operating modes:
`
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`33
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`
`°
`
`¯
`
`¯
`
`°
`
`hybrid mode
`
`electric mode
`
`economy mode
`
`recharge mode
`
`In hybrid mode both the thermal engine and the electric
`motor are connected to the driveline to assure vehicle
`nominal performance and to minimize fuel consumption
`and emissions.
`
`The vehicle operation can be divided into two basic
`modes: constant speed (cruising) and acceleration or
`deceleration.
`
`In cruising mode, relatively low power is required from
`the drive train. However, a large amount of energy is
`consumed in a long trip. In acceleration mode, a high
`peak of power is required but not much energy is
`consumed due to its brief and transient occurrence.
`When maximum vehicle performance is not required, a
`proper combination of thermal engine operation for
`cruising, and electric motor for acceleration can be used
`to minimize fuel consumption and emissions.
`Furthermore when the vehicle operates with light loads it
`is convenient to use electric power instead of thermal
`one because of the high specific fuel consumption of the
`gasoline engine.
`
`The electric motor acts as a generator to recover energy
`during deceleration and braking.
`
`economical point of view, to recharge battery from the
`electric distribution through the on-board electric battery
`charger. In this operation mode optimization of recharge
`strategies is necessary as a function of the battery state
`of charge and/or fuel economy and emissions. Fig 9
`shows a typical torque management.
`
`HYBRID MODE
`
`RECHARGE MODE
`
`THERMAL MODE
`
`2,3 2,4,£
`
`6 7 6 2 4 5
`
`7
`
`5
`
`.. o Drlverlorqoe
`~qu~t
`
`-- Thereat ~ Etec,rlc
`t~eqat
`tBrq*~
`
`I. The electric motor ~rovides all the required torque where engine has high specific fuel consumption
`"U0e engine deliveres torque with limited torque gradient; the electric motor deJiveres complementary torque
`2,
`3. The engine delivers the total requested torque
`4. E[ectri¢ motor torqoe is added when the requested torque is higher than the maximum engine torque
`3. Brakinglorqucisprovidedbytheelectricmotortorech~gethebatleries
`6. Thee~ectri~m~t~rrech~es~heba~te~es:~hetherma~eng~ne~e~iverst~rquef~rb~thtrac~nand~rech~ge
`7. Thee~e~tricm~t~r~es~de~iverany~sitivet~rquef~rtracti~n(~imitedvehic~eperf~rm~)
`
`Figure 9
`
`CONTROL SYSTEM AND MANAGEMENT
`STRATEGIES
`
`The hybrid system is managed by a Vehicle
`Management Unit (VMU) which implements the working
`strategies of the vehicle and activates the two drive
`trains through the inverter for the electric motor and the
`engine electronic control unit respectively. System
`diagnosis, driver’s controls, dashboard warning lights’
`management and battery state of charge are also
`accomplished by the VMU. Fig. 10 shows the control
`s ,stem scheme.
`
`The driver operates the vehicle in conventional way,
`using accelerator, brake, clutch and gear shift.
`
`r
`
`The powertrain management controls takes care of not
`discharging the battery below a certain threshold; if the
`threshold is reached the system does not allow the use
`of electric motor automatically switching in economy
`mode.
`
`In electric mode the thermal engine is shut down and
`mechanically disconnected through the electromagnetic
`clutch. In this mode, driving could be done without use of
`the manual gearbox, and the battery can be fully
`discharged.
`
`Thermal engine starts only if cabin cooling or heating is
`required.
`
`In economy mode all the torque necessary for vehicle
`operation is provided by the thermal engine. Braking
`energy is always recovered.
`
`In recharge mode the thermal engine delivers power
`both for traction and for battery recharge. As a general
`consideration it is always convenient, from an
`Page 6 of 8
`
`34
`
`ELECTRIC
`MOTOR t
`
`TRA{BAT ~TION INV~__.___1 I~
`M
`
`--7 STARTER i
`.~ .,=.~ z
`
`BATTERy pARAMETERS
`
`DJ
`
`p
`
`REQUIREMENT~ ENGINE
`VEHICLE ~
`CONTRO
`MANAGMENT
`UNiT
`UNrr
`
`~
`/ ~L~;~E~ [
`
`Figure l0
`Parameters from engine and vehicle ECU, are
`exchanged through CAN protocol. The driver, through
`the accelerator pedal position, sets the required traction
`torque; this is then splitted (in hybrid mode) between the
`engine and the motor as a function of vehicle operating
`condition and battery state of charge to optimize fuel
`economy, emission and dfiveability. The electric torque
`request is then actuated through the inverter. The
`thermal engine torque request is supplied to the engine
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`
`control unit that set the throttle angle accordingly.
`
`When the accelerator pedal is released, a regenerative
`braking occurs while the electromagnetic clutch is
`disengaged.
`
`Torque splitting on EUDC
`Thermal engine torque gradient limited @ldaNm/s
`
`50
`
`The braking effect, and the corresponding energy
`recovery is increased pushing the brake pedal.
`
`o
`
`0
`
`,’
`
`i ....
`
`i
`
`::
`
`44(
`’ )
`
`
`
`4O( , )
`
`24o ~
`
`160
`
`120
`
`0
`
`SIMULATION STUDIES
`
`A simulation package based on SIMULINKTM has been
`developed. SIMULINKTM is a program for simulating
`dynamic systems based on MATLABTM which is a
`powerful numerical math program. Individual
`components of the drive train could be easily
`represented by simulation blocks. They can be
`connected to constitute a mathematical model of the
`entire power train. The model includes the possibility to
`implement different torque split strategies and to
`evaluate the effect on parameters such as fuel
`consumption, emission, battery state of charge etc.
`
`Fig 11 shows the top level block diagram of the hybrid
`powertrain.
`
`PARALLEL HYBRID PROPULSION SYSTEM
`
`Nmes
`
`nl
`
`p
`
`Control strategies
`
`Figure 1 t
`
`Figure 12 and 13 show a typical torque split on ECE and
`on EUDC which is obtained by limiting the thermal
`engine torque increase at 1 daNm/s.
`
`Torque splitting on ECE
`Thermal engine torque gradient limited @ldaNm/s
`
`160 !
`
`~ ............
`
`Z~, 100
`
`60 ~i
`
`__,_!~ ....
`
`;
`
`:,
`
`_
`
`36O
`320
`
`260
`
`240
`
`-100 ~
`
`~
`
`-~
`
`~ 04o
`
`0 20
`
`40
`
`60
`
`80 160 120
`
`140
`
`160
`
`180
`
`200
`
`....... Bectric rmtor
`
`Sp~
`
`Time (S)
`Figure 12
`
`60
`
`860
`820
`780
`....... Beclric motor
`
`900
`
`940
`
`980
`
`1020
`
`1060
`
`1100
`
`1140
`
`1180
`
`Time (s)
`Figure 13
`
`Fig 14 shows the effect of different thermal engine
`torque increase limitation on tailpipe emission, fuel
`consumption and electric energy consumption.
`
`ENGINE TRANSIENT TORQUE
`LIMITATION ~
`ON ~EUCD
`
`-.*--co
`~ N~x
`-o-- AVE~,GE BM~
`
`+~c
`~ B~. ~g,,’ cms.
`--o-- Fud c~s.
`
`20~
`
`0
`
`o= -2oi
`
`.~ -40
`
`~. -60
`
`-P,0 ,~
`
`-100 (cid:128)
`0,O31
`
`0,01
`
`0,1
`
`1
`
`lO
`
`t~itx thenml ~glne torque gratlent (~Nm/s)
`ngure 14
`
`Figure 15 shows the effect of different constant
`recharging thermal engine torque on tailpipe emission,
`fuel consumption and electric energy consumption, when
`the thermal engine torque gradient is limited at 2 Nm/s.
`
`Fig 16 shows the effect of different constant electric
`motor equivalent torque on tailpipe emission, fuel
`consumption and electric energy consumption, when the
`thermal engine torque gradient is limited at 9 Nm/s.
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`
`CONCLUSION
`
`The hybrid drive system presented in this paper is
`envisaged to use as much as possible series
`components to minimize development time and costs. At
`present time it is hard to predict which type of hybrid
`vehicle will be the best choice for the future traffic and
`legislation scenario. Our studies showed that the
`parallel hybrid configuration could be the right choice.
`
`It is important to remark that the objective of the present
`research work is of identifying and prototyping a
`powertrain for a hybrid vehicle suitable for mass
`production. As a consequence, the focus of the research
`project has been the "system optimization", i.e.
`identification of optimum configuration and control
`strategies using "conventional present technology".
`
`At this stage the research and development activities of
`power train functions and control strategies, using
`current level of technology on batteries, electric motor
`and combustion engine, have shown good results in fuel
`economy, emissions and performance. Further
`improvements in this area are still possible and will be
`the main goals of the future activity.
`
`ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
`
`This work has been carried out in the frame of an Italian
`Research project (Legge 64 per il Mezzogiorno d’ltalia)
`that economically supported the Elasis activities.
`
`f
`
`CONSTANT ELECTRIC TORQUE EFFECT
`
`ON ECE+EUCD
`
`[ ~co
`
`~Sox
`
`~HC
`~ AVI~C~nSlEP
`
`]
`
`0
`
` !iiii
`
`............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... s
`o,~
`I
`I.s
`2
`2,5
`
`Equlvaier~ Nectdc T~r~e (daNm)
`Figure 16
`
`Figure 17 reports the kinetic energy breakdown during
`decelerations phases on ECE, EUDC, and at two
`deceleration rates.
`
`CALCULATED ENERGY BREAKDOWN
`Figure 17
`
`100
`
`9O
`
`8O
`
`70
`
`60
`
`5o
`
`50 7
`
`ul 40
`
`19,3
`
`313
`
`213
`
`113
`
`0
`
`ao,0
`
`~3,4
`
`~//’/’//’~
`
`20,6
`
`56,0
`
`20,0’
`
`10,1 9,3
`
`41,0 1-0,1
`
`ii ;i~ i!i
`
`ECE
`
`EUDC
`
`ECE+EUDC DECELER. 0.5
`ntis2
`
`DECELER.
`0.75 mJs2
`
`I~1En ergy savin g
`
`r-I Electric losses
`
`r’lAerodynamycs+rollyng+transm ssion losses
`]
`
`Figure 18 shows the electric range autonomy on ECE,
`and at two constat speed.
`
`ELECTRIC RANGE
`
`61
`
`45
`
`39
`
`2O
`
`ECE
`
`V=50 (kin/h) V=90 (km/h)
`
`Figure 18
`
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