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`Food Review: International. 6(1). 119-147 (1990)
`
`
`
`Downloadedby[JohnJones]at18:5312September20ll
`
`THE UTiLlZATlON OF ANTARCTIC KRILL
`FOR HUMAN FOOD
`
`TANEKO SUZUKI
`Nihon University
`Department of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
`Ktmcino-lSGG. Fujisawavshi. [Comma Prefecture, Japan
`
`NOBUXA 2U SHIBA TA
`National Rmmh institute of Fisheries Science
`Fisheries Agency. Ministry of Agriculture and Forwtry
`5-54 Kachldoki. Dwain. 104 Tokyo, Japan
`
`ABSTRACT
`
`Antarctic krill (Euphcusia superba) is distributed south of 60°S
`around the South Pole. The stool: of krill is estimated at 360 to [400
`million tons. [111930 the total amount harvested in the world was 500
`thousand tons, mainly by the USSR, followed by Japan. Chemical
`composition of krill is as follows: moisture 71.9~83.l%, crude pro-
`tein [LS-153%. chitin and gluddes 2%, and crud: ash 3'71. Nutri-
`tive value of krill protein is lower than whole-egg protein but higher
`than milk protein. Kn‘ll contains large amounts of vitamins A and E.
`About 70% or krill lipid is unsaturated fatty acids such as olcic. cico~
`sancmacnoic acid. and dooosahcxacnolc odd. Commercial products
`from lm'll in Japan are frozen raw krill. frozen boiled krill, pooled
`krill moat, and others. All of these pmducts are processed on boats
`in the Antarctic Ocean. Krill products in Japan tomlui 27!.050 tons
`in 1986-1987.
`
`Copyright © 1990 by Marcel Dckker, inc.
`
`119
`
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`
`SULUK! AND SHIBATA
`
`KRILL BIOLOGY AND FISHERIES
`
`Taxonomy of Krill
`
`"Krill" is the general name for the small, shrimp-like organisms belonging to
`the order Euphausiacae, which are found in both shallow and deep waters around
`the earth. particularly in areas of high latitude. There fire 2 families, I] genera,
`and 84 recognized species belonging to krill (l, 2). Among them the Antarctic
`krill (Euphausr‘a superba) is the most abundant and the most important. its utili-
`zation as a potential resource for human food has called much attention to it,
`although there are a few other species living in the Antartic Ocean besides E.
`superba.
`The taxonomy of E. superba is as follows:
`
`Phylum
`Subphylum
`Class
`Subclass
`Series
`
`Arthropoda
`Mandibulata
`Crustacca
`Malaccstracea
`Eumalacostraca
`
`Supcrorder
`Order
`Family
`Genus
`Species
`
`Eucardia
`Euphausiacea
`Euphausiidae
`Euphausia
`Euphausla superba
`
`The E. :uperba grows as large as abOut 5 cm. Most of the euphausiid are much
`smaller.
`The appearance of krill is similar to that of shrimp belonging to the order of
`Decapoda of the same superordcr Euwida (Fig. I). Smaller size and exposed
`gill are points to generally distinguish Euphausiacea from Decapodne. Another
`difference is that the former spends its whole life floating as plankton, whereas
`the latter, in most species. floats only in the larva stage.
`The Antarctic krill is distributed south of 60°S around the South Pole, with
`high density in the cold waters of 10w salinity (Fig. 2).
`During daylight hours, schools of the Antarctic krill are found mainly in depths
`of 50 to 100 m. while in the evenings they [last up to the surface and are fre-
`quently seen as brownish ”patches" (3).
`The large variety of food for krill includes plant and animal detritus material;
`and at the same time. krill itself is the main food for whales. seals. fishes, and
`birds. Thus. it plays an important role in the food chain system in the Antarctic
`ecosystem.
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`Downloadedby[JohnJones]at18:5312September201]
`
`UTIUZATION OF ANTARCTIC KRILL
`
`113
`
`Stock Size of Krill
`
`Although the Antarctic Ocean has very high biological activity. and krill sus-
`tains various kinds of animals, the stock size of krill remains very considerable.
`in the years when whales in the Antarctic were not exploited. it is estimated that
`more than 180 million tons of krill were consumed by balecn whales, and over
`300 million tons were consumed by other animals such as seals. fishes, birds,
`etc. (4). in most cases, the estimate of fish resources is made by analyzing fish
`catch statistics. in the case of krill. however, th'm method is insufficient because
`krill catch data do not cover the entire stock of krill. Therefore. several scientists
`have tried some indirect methods to estimate the krill stock size by an analysis
`of the dynamics of the ecosystem. Their methods vary. but in general, a numerb
`cal model is set up and solved by using biological parameters such as reproduc-
`tivity and growth of krill, those of krill feeders such as whales and seals, con-
`version ratio between prey and predator. and so on. The result varies rather widely
`according to individual scientists because of the different assumptions introduced
`in setting up the model of each type and because of the lack of knowledge of
`reliable fundamental parameters. The estimated value ranges from 360 million
`to about a billion. to about 700 to 1,400 million tons (5. 6).
`The method of estimating stock size by using an echo-integrator. or “scienti-
`fic fish-finder," has been developed in recent years. In this method. neither any
`assumed biological parameter nor any catch data are used in the calculations.-
`The estimate of the stock of krill is likely to be low because the equipment can
`measure only to the depth of 100 m, and many schools of high density have been
`found in deeper waters. The stock size of krill in the entire Antarctic Ocean can
`be obtained from the local density measured by this method. An example in such
`an estimation is about 300 million tons. with a high possibility of underestimated
`bias from the viewpoint of mathematical statistics (7). Notwithstanding such a
`detect. this method is extremely useful in studying the local distribution pattern
`of krill in relation to the environmental conditions; therefore, further develop-
`ment of the technology is expected in both hard and software aspects.
`The amount of catch per hauling. which represents the loml density of the
`stock. stays stable except for the early period of exploration (5) (Fig. 3). Despite
`the present world arch of Antarctic krill of 0.3-0.5 million tons, there seems
`to be no direct impact of the catch upon the stock. At the same time, it should
`be mentioned that the distribution of krill is far from even. Therefore. an ex-
`treme concentration of effort in any single locale might cause a local overcatcb
`of local stock, resulting in the lowering of catch per effort. Fishing for krill under
`such circumstances becomes unprofitable.
`
`Fisheries
`
`Exploitation of Antarctic krill started in the early 19605 by both Japan and USSR
`for research purposes. Now in the 1980:. nine countries have krill fisheries. in
`
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`Figure 3. Amounts of catch of krill per one net haul. Source: Nasu 1988.
`
`1973 the total harvest in the world was 22 thousand tons; almost all was by the
`USSR. In the early 1980: the world wtch was as large as 500 thousand tons, mostly
`by the USSR, followed by Japan. Since then, there has been a sudden drop in
`the USSR catch, and the total world catch decreased in spite of the increase of
`the Japanese catch in recent years for research purmses (Fig. 4).
`The majority of the Japanese catch comes from the Atlantic Sector, in par-
`ticular from the Scotia See despite its distance from Japan. One reason for this
`is that the standing crop of krill in this arm is more stable than in other areas.
`Japanese krill fisheries are operated by means of stem trawl vessels with sur-
`face or midwater trawl nets.
`The inactivity of recent krill fisheries is not due to the decline or stock but
`completely due to the stagnation of the market and imbalance between cost and
`price. ”improvements are made to increase economical usage or krill. fisheries
`can increase their catches several times the present level without fear of hav—
`ing an adverse effect on krill stock or onthe balance of the total Antarctic eco-
`system. Figure 5 shows the Japanese fisheries in the Antarctic Ocean.
`
`CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF Maximo KRILL
`Chemical Camposifion in General
`
`A number of reports have been published by scientists of Japan, USSR. and
`other countries. The reports differ slightly because of the differences in size. age.
`
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`126
`
`SUZUKI AND SHIBATA
`
`sac of samples, and seasons of sampling. Table l (8) shows the chemical compo-
`sition of whole krill (with carapaoes) taken in the period December to February.
`Size and chemical composition or krill vary from season to season. The amount
`of water decreases. and protein and {at increase with age of krill. The average
`analyses are: 77.9-83.l% water. ll.9-!5.4% crude protein. about 2% of chitin
`and glueides. and abOut 3% ash (9). The corn position of muscle after removing
`ccphalothorax and carapace is shown in Table 2. it contains, nalurally. less ash
`as compared to whole krill. Moreover, no remarkable difference can be seen be-
`tween the cephalolhorax and lelson, Table 3 (13).
`
`
`31M! 1. Vuialion of Chemical Composilion of Whole Krill
`Moisrurc
`Crude protein
`Crude fax
`Glncidc
`Chitin
`Crude ash
`('10)
`(‘15)
`. (‘10)
`('10)
`(‘70)
`(We)
`Dale of catch
`33.7
`11.3
`0.43
`0.62
`0.53
`3.21
`Dec. 5
`81.8
`13.8
`0.60
`0.66
`0.53
`3.19
`Dec. 15
`111.:
`13.7
`0.71
`0.73
`0.52
`2.03
`Dec. 26
`30.4
`14.2
`1.40
`055
`0.50
`3.00
`Jan. 5
`80.8
`13.5
`1.90
`0.50
`052
`3.07
`Jan. 15
`79.7
`14.2
`2.50
`0.53
`0.50
`3.07
`Jan. 25
`m:
`14.2
`3.01
`0.00
`0.49
`3.08
`Feb, 5
`
`Feb, l5 2.60 00.0 13.4 ' 3.37 0.59 050
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Table 2. General Componenls or Antarctic Krill Meal
`._._._
`General component (70)
`
`ample no.‘ Water
`Crude prmein
`Cmdc [at
`0nd: ash Rancher and R_r:_f_.
`l
`76.60
`19.63
`2.65
`L48
`Hiram c! :1. (l0)
`2
`79.95
`17.65
`L31
`l.43
`Suynml at 111. (I l)
`3
`79.69
`”Al
`1.64
`1.45
`Suyamn cl 1:11. (I l)
`
`0.412.984.24 Suzuki el al. (12) Ll
`
`
`
`
`”Sample; I, 3: frozen: Sample 2 :ollocled from stomach of Mimic whale; Sample 4 ma come“ very
`high because ol’ the lug: worldly of We! used when and] la removed by peeling machine.
`
`Table 3. Difference in Chemical Components of Ccphnloxhamx and Tail of firm
`Camel oomponml (Wu)
`Purl of
`Weight ratio
`
`lrrlll body
`Water
`Crude prolein
`Gude l'al
`Crude ash
`in whole body ('10)
`Cephaloxhom
`79.7
`12.7
`2.6
`4.4
`45
`
`Tail 55 79.0 ".6 2.2 3.2
`
`
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`Downloadedby[JohnJones]H1825}12September2011
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`
`UTlLiZATION OF AMARCHC KRILL
`
`127
`
`The chemical composition of krill is characterized by a little more moisture
`and more glucides than traditional commercial lish. On the whole. krill has a
`well-balanced composition for human foods.
`
`Lipids, “tannins. and Minerals
`
`The content of lipids in Hill varies greatly and is determined by the stage or
`growth at the time of catch. The lipid content increases toward the end of the
`fishing season in the Antarctic Ocean (14).
`The content of phospholipids in krill was reported by Aral et al. (15) to be
`29.9%, and by Bottino (9) to be 54-58%. The lipids of krill have a high iodine
`value. as shown in Table 4, which indicates rather high unsatumtion as com-
`pared to other fish species (l6).
`Reports of fatty acid components of krill lipid have been made by many sci-
`entists (17-23). On the basis of their reports, Grantham (9) summed up the values
`as follows: About 70% of.the whole lipid was unsaturated fatty acid with an
`iodine value of ”0-190. Concentrations of oleic acid. eicosapentaenoic acid,
`and docosahcxaenoic acid a're high. Essential fatty acids such as linolic, linolenic,
`and arachidonie acids are 5% oithe total lipids.
`Table 5 shows the fatty acid composition of krill lipids ( l4). Yanase (24) com-
`pared the fatty acid components of krill lipid with those of salmon, tuna. met-lt-
`erel, baleen whale, and shrimp. He reported that krill lipid closely resembles
`that of the baleen whale and also that of fish. Krill lipids are, however, not easily
`oxidized, which may be due to their high vitamin E concentrations (16. 25, 26).
`Krill lipids occasionally show a high acid value because frozen samples are
`stored for long periods. it is known that frozen fish containing high percentages
`of phospholipids have high acid contents (24).
`
`
`Table d. Unmonifiahle Matter and Cholestanl in Krill
`
`Total diolederol
`
`
`Unsaponil’iahle matter
`
`Ina/1w a tissue
`nag/g oil
`(We in oil)
`Iodine value
`Sunni: type“
`71.6
`19.1
`4.68
`135
`X
`63.!
`42.6
`8.56
`166
`A
`71.0
`48.0
`8.57
`160
`B
`62.3
`76.3
`13.1
`"W
`B
`66.7
`2h?!
`4.80
`I32
`‘8
`
`B 62.1 [40 L“ 17.0
`
`
`
`”A: raw krill wot frozen; 9: boiled krill was frozen.
`
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`
`Downloadedby[JohnJones]at18:5312Scptcmbcr2011
`
`118
`
`SUZUKI AND SHIBATA
`
`TINC 5. Fully Acid Composition of Krill Lipids ('la)
`31111131: A"
`Neutral
`Total
`lipid
`lipid
`Fatty acid
`0. 1
`0.1
`12:0
`True
`Trace
`13:0
`6.9
`4.9
`14:0
`0.7.
`0.2
`14:1
`0.6
`0.5
`15:0
`0. l
`0.2
`16:01)!
`17.9
`18.8
`16:0
`6.0
`4.9
`16:1
`2.0
`1.4
`16:2
`0.1
`0.1
`17:0
`1.1
`1.0
`17:1
`0.2
`0.1
`18.111"
`0.9
`1.0
`18:11
`17.1
`16.4
`18:1
`3.2
`3.3
`18:2
`1.3
`1.1
`18:
`1.7
`1.3
`18:4
`0.2
`0.2
`19:0
`0.1
`0.1
`19;!
`0.4
`0.2
`20:0
`0.4
`0.4
`20:1
`0.1
`0.2
`20:2
`1.5
`1.2
`20:3
`0.4
`0.5
`20:4
`17.6
`17.4
`20:5
`0.1
`Tm:
`21 :0
`0.5
`0.4
`21;]
`0.4
`0.4
`. 22:1
`0.3
`0.2
`21:2
`4.5
`5.3
`22:3
`0.4
`0.7
`11:4(2421)
`0.4
`0.7
`22:5
`9.2
`12.4
`22:6
`0.2
`0.4
`23:1
`3.1
`1.8
`243(7)
`0.8
`1.2
`Unknown
`27.5
`26.1
`Suuraled
`26.0
`2-1.2
`yommsamrated
`45.7
`48.5
`Polyuusnlumlcd
`0.8
`1.2
`Unknown
`'A: raw krill was from; B: boiled krill was frozen.
`
`
`Samplz B"
`Ncumd
`Told
`Oomplcx
`Complex
`11de
`lipld
`lipid
`lipid
`0.2
`0.3
`T1100
`0. l
`Trace
`0.1
`-—
`-
`11.1
`14.8
`2.5
`1.8
`0.3
`0.6
`0.]
`0.1
`0.9
`1.3
`0.7
`0.3
`0.2
`0.3
`[1.1
`0.1
`17.6
`18.4
`24.6
`23.3
`6.2
`4.5
`3.‘
`2.7
`1.7
`2.3
`0.6
`0.4
`0.1
`0.2
`Trace
`The:
`0.9
`1.6
`0.9
`0.7
`0.3
`0.4
`0.3
`0.2
`0.9
`1.0
`0.6
`0.7
`14.7
`16.9
`10.6
`15.0
`3.4
`4.2
`2,9
`3.7
`1.5
`2.3
`1.6
`1.2
`3.1
`3.7
`1.6
`0.9
`0.4
`0.6
`0.2
`0.2
`0.1
`0.1
`0.1
`0.!
`0.3
`0.3
`0.2
`0.2
`0.1
`0.2
`0.)
`0.4
`0.1
`0.2
`0.3
`0.3
`1.4
`0.7
`1.1
`1.3
`0.6
`0.5
`0.5
`0.3
`17.3
`12.0
`21.0
`16.5
`Truce
`'1'race
`Truce
`Trace
`0.3
`0.7
`0.5
`0.3
`0.3
`0.3
`0.6
`' 0.2
`0.2
`0.3
`0.3
`0.5
`2.4
`3.2
`5,6
`4.9
`0.4
`0.4
`0.5
`0.4
`0.4
`0.1
`0.5
`0.6
`11.1
`5.5
`12.5
`14.4
`0.2
`Trace
`.03
`0.6
`1.1
`1.3
`4.3
`6.4
`0.2
`0.4
`1.0
`1.2
`32.0
`37.7
`29.2
`26.9
`20.1
`23.1
`24.9
`16.5
`51.11
`44.7
`37.0
`53.3
`
`1.2
`0.2
`0.4
`1.0
`
`0000011
`
`AKER877ITCOO118591
`
`

`

`
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`
`
`Domloadcdby[JohnJones}at18:5312September201l
`
`UTlLl'IATION 0F ANTARCHC KRILL
`
`129
`
`Cholesterol is present in the tissue of krill at 62. Mi .6 mg per 100 g, with lit-
`tle variation among samples (16) as shown in Table 4. Generally, cholesterol con-
`tent of shellfish is two to four times that of fish. Krill is no exception. Although
`people may worry that eating Antarctic krill could cause an accumulation of
`cholesterol in blood, it is known that fat of fish and shellfish containing high
`amounts of unsaturated fatty acids has the opposite effect. In fact, no increase
`in cholesterol either in blood or liver was found in rats which had been fed krill
`lipids for 3 weeks (27) or 2 months (15).
`Krill contains much vitamin A and other vitamins. Most of the vitamin A can-
`taincd in the whole body of krill is astnxanthin. which is highly concentrated in
`the eyes. Vitamin A is reported in widely ranging concentrations from 197 to 1,446
`lU per 100 g of raw or boiled krill (l4). Yanase (3) measured vitamins in frozen
`whole krill. The results are summarized in Table 6.
`Inorganic substances in krill are listed in Table 7, with P as the highest in con-
`centration. followed by Na and K (29). it is reported that krill (Euphausr'a su-
`perba and Meganyuctiphanes norvgica) contain fluoride in amounts several
`times higher than other crustaceans. mainly in the exoskelelon, carapace, and
`ccphalothorax. but relatively little in the muscle (30).
`
`Amount and Characteristics of Protein
`
`After separating muscle (tail meat in Table 8), hepatopancreas, stomach, heart,
`inner skin, and other remainders including carapaces of living krill samples, the
`
`
`Table 6. Vitamin and Vitamiri~Related Compounds In Krill
`Amounls in Irozen whole body‘
`(wet weight basis)
`Substances
`380 lU/lOO s
`Vitamin A
`3.12 Ins/1m g
`Astuanthio
`[.58 1/:
`Riboflavin
`Li 7/;
`Vitamin B.
`l5 1/:
`Ca-panthmhcnate
`70 7/3
`Niacin
`60 7/[00 5
`Folic acid
`to y/lOO 5
`Biotin
`
`[6 y/lOO g
`__
`Yitumin B"
`'Oeterazimtion methods: Carr-Price reaction method for vitamin A.
`spedmphorometrleal method for mmmhln with oil solved in ethyl-
`ether; lunilla'vin fluorescence method [or ribnihvin: miuohiologial
`35st for other vitamin B with but water exam: of material which is
`(flawed with poplin.
`
`0000012
`
`AKERBTTITCOOI 1 8592
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`

`

`
`
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`Downloadudby[JohnJones]a!18:53laSeptember2011
`
`130
`
`SUZUKI AND SHSBATA
`
`inorganic Substances in mm
`Table 7.
`
`Minerals
`P
`Ca
`N;
`K
`M;
`Fe
`Q1
`
`In; in 193 3 wt“
`LNG-2.430
`271-749
`1.234.829
`LON—1.400
`91
`12.4
`5.4.12.4
`
`Table 8. Wéght. Prolein Content, and pH of Various 'fissuc of Fresh Krill
`
`Prolcin’ (3/100 3 cf krill) pH“
`
`
`
`_...
`
`[Fig.5 __
`Tail muscle
`Hcpalopanutas
`Stomach Ind hum
`Inner skin
`Gianna: aad run-“fining
`pan
`
`Weighl pct
`who): body
`(Va)
`16.4
`7.8
`8.0
`10.8
`40.7
`
`Total
`4.l US.”
`0.8 (10.3)
`0.3 (3.8)
`0.7 (6.5)
`4.0 (9.8)
`
`As
`Aim ll
`
`Water-soiubl:
`caugh:
`h u S‘C
`1.6 (6.0)
`7.!
`7.!
`0.8 (10.3)
`6.7
`6.5
`0.3 (3.9)
`7.2
`7.0
`0.7 (6.5)
`1.5
`7.2
`2.8 (6.9)
`8.5
`8.8
`
`___§_.g
`
`--
`
`__
`
`Separation loss
`
`6.2
`9.9
`100.0
`Tom
`‘Waser’solublc pvolefiq was extracted will! phosphu: buffer (pH 7.3. I - 0.05).
`”pH was muurcd usln: hnmogmlc of each tissue with dinilkd water.
`‘Th: macs in (mend-cm: show the. «mum (g) of matrix: in 100 t. of each lime.
`
`_— __
`
`.2.
`
`——
`
`L.
`
`—-
`
`_
`
`ratio of weight and content of protein of each tissue was measured. The results
`are shown in Table 8 (31). The portion of muscle is 26.7%. similar Io results
`hitherto published (9). The portion ofprolcin in the muscle is about 4i "Io of all
`protein in krill. Thus it shows that more than 50% of protein in bin is lost dur-
`ing the removal of carapaces and internal organs.
`About 80% of the nitrogen compounds in krill muscle is protein-nitrogen,
`and myofibrillar protdn makes up 60-70% of the total protein, or on the average
`9.4 g in [00 g of muscle, similar to fish meat (3]). On the other hand. the porv
`lion of sarcoplasmic protein is high in tissues mhcr than muscle. The myofibn‘l-
`lar protein is mainly composed ol’ myosin, actin. and paramyosin. being similar
`to that of muscle of other invertebrates (31-33). Table 9 shows protcin composi-
`tion in krill meat.
`
`0000013
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`AKER877IT00011 8593
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`

`

`UTILIZATION OF ANTARCTIC KRILL
`
`131
`
`Nonpmtein-N
`(mg N/g)
`4.72
`
`_
`
`Sample
`l
`
`Table 9. Various Protein Content: in Krill Meat
`
`Protein-N (ma Nit)"—
`
`Sp.’
`Mf.‘
`Alkali-soluble
`Siromn
`2.30
`11 .32
`2.28
`0.26
`(14.2)”
`(70.0)
`(14.1)
`(1.6)
`l1.6
`2.20
`0.22
`4.55
`2
`
`(84.0)
`_‘ 9.4.7)
`(1.5)
`“SR: sucoplssrnic protein Sun I + Sup z to Fig. 5-6: ML: myuiibrlilar protein.
`A'Velnu in parentheses show each protein—N (We) in total poteln—N.
`
`
`
`
`
`Downloadedby[Johniones]at18:5312September201l
`
`Table 10. Amounts of Water-Soluble and Salt-Soluble Proteins
`Punch ('79)
`
`Part of krill body
`Moisture (‘7')
`Water—soluble
`Salt-solubleb
`Whole krill
`“.6
`6.! :l: 0.4
`3.7 t 0.4
`
`Tail mat 9.4 it 0.8 81.7 5.0 5: 0.4
`
`
`Water-soluble protein was extracted by phosphate buffer solution 05.5 mM NaJ‘li‘O. +
`3.38 MM KH.PO.. pH 7.5, l - D.D$):salt~rolub3wmtdn. byiMS MKClphowhlte buller
`solution (pH 7.3. l
`I- 0.5).
`
`Previous data concerning protein or Antarctic krill were obtained by measur-
`lug frozen hill or processed krill brought back from the Antarctic Ocean. Shibata
`(31) measured protein solubility of krill immediately after each catch. Table 10
`shows the amounts of water-soluble and salt—soluble proteins.
`Because the body of the krill is so small. its muscle is located close to other
`tissues (mainly digestive organs) containing protease, and muscle protein is easily
`affected by protease. It ls, therefore. necessary to wash the muscle with large
`amounts of water immediately after each catch to prevent other tissues from be-
`lng mixed with the muscle.
`Myolibrillar protein in the muscle or krill aggregates and increases its molecu-
`lar size with time after death. The aggregation is much faster than in the case of
`other fishes (31). Aggregation of myofibrillar protein and enlargement of its
`molecular size also occur during freezing storage (31).
`Denaturation speed of myofibrillar protein of krill compared to those of other
`fishes is shown in Figure 6 (33). In this figure. the temperature stability of the
`Ca-AT'Pase of myofibrillar protein in several species or fish is shown by an oblique
`line. The lines on the right side indicate the conditions at which the myot'ibrillar
`protein denature: faster than the lines on the left side. The myofibrillar Protein
`ol‘ krill is more unstable than those of rat-tail (Nematonums pectorafis) or horse-
`hair crab (Erimaceu: isenbackr‘t), which have been considered veiy unstable by
`experiments hitherto made.
`
`0000014
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`

`132
`
`SUZUKI AND sumATA
`
`
`
`
`
`Downloadedby[JohnJones]al18:5312September20]]
`
`100
`
`10
`
`KpX105
`
`0.]
`
`I 03/1-
`Inactivation nu: COMB ofmyofibrillar (Ia-ATP»: orkrill and other fishes. A—L.
`Figurz 6.
`krill; A. rat-tail; B, Alaska potluck; C. sardine; D, whale.
`
`Adding sorbitol or nodium glutamate as antidcuaturant is effective in stabiliz-
`ing such unstable proteins of krill (33). The stability of krill protein can be in-
`cxcascd about 4 timu by adding 1.0 M: 16 timu with 2.0 M; and about 94th
`with 3.0 M sorbitol, rcspccfivcly.
`
`Components of Taslc and Smell
`
`Krill has good taste with some mamas: similar to that of shrimp. The taste gen-
`erally exists in the extract obtained ancr cxtracling the tissue with hot water to
`
`0000015
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`AKERSTTITCOO1 1 8595
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`

`UTILIZATION OF ANTARCI'1C KRILL
`
`133
`
`remove the protein. The extract indudes free amino acids, peptides, organic
`acids. nucleotides, etc. It is considered that nonprotein nitrogen compounds.
`such as free amino acids, in the extract play an important role in evoking the
`taste. The composition of free amino acids of prawns (Penaeus jarponlcus) is
`shown in comparison to that of krill in Table I] (34). Krill muscle is rich in gly-
`cine. alanine, proline. arginine. lysine, and taurine. Moreover, it contains as
`much as 106 mg% of hetaine. This is somewhat similar to shrimp and implies
`that other compounds contribute to the taste of krill. However, the amount of
`the taste components such as glycine and betaine of krill is lss than that ol' prawn,
`that is, more than 1000 l'l'lg% of glycine and 539 mg']. ofbetaine (35). It is known
`that glycine decreases during freezing storage. Accordingly, the low value or
`these compounds in krill may be because the measurement was made on frozen
`samples. The specific smell of frozen krill was found to be caused by dimethyl-
`sulfide (DMS) and a volatile amine. Tokunaga (36) reported that frozen krill
`contains 50-3700 ns/s of DM3, more in cephalothorax than in telson. DMS
`evokes a flavor specific to crustaceans when its concentration is below about
`
`Tattle ll. Free Amino Acids in Krill and Prawn
`ms
`
`(amino acid
`Alanine
`cumin:
`Valirle
`Lcuclrte
`lsoieueine
`Praline
`Phenylalanine
`Tyrosine
`Scrine
`Threonine
`O/stine
`Methionine
`Axsinine
`Histidinc
`Lysine
`Aspartic acid
`Glutamie acid
`Taurine
`
`'80“ ethanol “trad.
`
`FM content (mg/I00 1;)
`Krill
`Prawn“
`106
`58
`“6
`lZSD
`62.7
`l9
`85.6
`[1
`48.4
`ll
`217
`170
`53.1
`7
`47.6
`I
`42.7
`108
`53.6
`15
`o
`_
`33.9
`i I
`266
`686
`16.5
`7
`145
`15
`52.0
`Trace
`35.!
`65
`206
`—-
`
`
`
`
`
`Downloadedby[JohnJones]atl825312September201l
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`0000016
`
`MERBTTITCOOH 8596
`
`

`

`l2“
`
`SUZUKI AND SHIBATA
`
`100 rig/g. The aroma becomes unpleasant when it exceeds the concentration
`of l pg/g. and it becomes offensive when it exceeds several micrograms/gram.
`DMS ls cnzymatically formed from dimethylfi-propiocetine in phytoialanlttons
`which serve as food for krill. Storage at ~«30"C is desirable to prevent forma~
`tion of EMS; - 20°C is insufficient. The offensive odor of krill is caused by the
`large amounts of trlmethylaminc and isobutylaminc in krill (37). Trimethylamine
`comes from trimcthylamincoxldc.
`Many compounds are formed when krill is boiled. Some compounds, such V
`as pyridine and thialdinc, produce a pleasant flavor, while aldehyde; cause of-
`fensive odors. The disagreeable odor specific to krill is formed by a mixture of
`these compounds. Krill contains large amounts of sulfur-containing compounds.
`Some of these compounds have low thmholds and thus contribute to the smell
`specific to krill (34).
`The muscle with the carapace: and internal organs removed docs not until any
`offensive odor during storage. even when heated.
`
`NUTRmVE VALUE OF “BILL
`
`Because protein is the chief component of krill. it is important to review its nu-
`tritive value. Nutritive evaluation is by an amino acid score of the type and quan-
`tity of essential amino acids contained or by the rate of weight gain of rats fed
`different proteins.
`Amino acids of krill protein have been studied well (38-41), and there is a re-
`semblancc to those of common crustaceans such as prawn (Penauesjapanicur)
`or shiba shrimp (Metapemauesjoynen). Examples of recent amino acid analyses
`of krill protein are shown in Table 12. Sulfur-containing amino acids were found
`to be low compared to those in whole-egg protein. On the other hand, lysine
`and thrconine, which are found only in small amounts in grains, are relatively
`abundant in krill. The amino acid score (method recommended by a FAD/WHO
`committcc) for krill protein ranges from 85 to mo (42). The discrtpancy of re-
`sults obtained by different scientists is probably because of use ofdifferent meth-
`ods of analyses. The amino acid scores of milk and shiba shrimp are 91 (4!) and
`71 (4t), rtspcctively. with sulfur-containing amino acids being the primary limit-
`ing amino acids in both cases. These results show that the krill protein is very
`similar to that of casein in milk.
`Animal experiments give more accurate estimatcs of Protein value than the
`amino acid score because the latter data not include digestion and absorption
`aspects.
`Boiled lcrill, after being fmum and dried, were fed to rats for 4 weeks. Wcight
`gain. protein efficiency (PER), and net protein utilization (NPU) were com-
`pared to those obtained with whole-egg protein. Values obtained with krill pro-
`tein were lower than those obtained with whole-egg protein but were similar to
`
`
`
`Downloadedby[JohnJones}at“MB12September2m1
`
`0000017
`
`AKER87TI'I'000118597
`
`

`

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`UTILIZATION OF ANTARCTIC KRILL
`
`135
`
`Tuhl: 11. Amino Acid Compositions of Krill Protein (5 at amino acid in hydrolysate from [00 g
`of protein)
`
`
`
` Amino acid Whole body Muscle
`Muscle
`rcn' predpltllc
`Alanine
`5.46
`5.83
`6.0!
`6.7.
`Glycine
`4.67
`4.58
`4.62
`(.5
`Vulinc
`5.90
`5.38
`4.72
`5.5
`Lcuclne
`7.71
`8.47
`8.28
`8.0
`lsolcuciue
`5.10
`5.50
`5.25
`5.8
`Praline
`4.21
`3.36
`3.35
`3.2
`Phenylalanine
`6.47
`6.35
`6.32
`4.6
`Tyrosine
`4.06
`4.29
`4.5!
`4.9
`Tryplophane
`1.50
`I .60
`1.70
`l.9
`Sarina
`4.95'
`4.90'
`3.91'
`4.7
`Threonine
`4.70
`4.65
`4.20
`4.5
`Quint:
`1.45
`I.”
`1.35
`1.0
`Methionine
`3.03
`3.53
`3.44
`2.5
`Arglnille
`6.72
`6.83
`7.08
`6.8
`Hislldine
`2.30
`2.16
`2.40
`0.8
`l.ysim:
`8.58
`9.50
`10.20
`9.3
`Aspartic acid
`l2.2(l
`12.00
`12.50
`“.0
`Glutnmlc acid
`”.60
`15.00
`15.30
`12.5
`Glueosamine
`3.15
`l.26
`1.23
`Amide N
`1.37
`99.0
`105. M
`106.07
`Total amino acid
`106.62
`
`_._._._..._—————_————————-—-———————
`N recovered (Vin)
`97.05
`97.41
`98.55
`'Vllm-s corrected by I09: to compensate for destruction during acid hydrolysis.
`
`those of casein, Table IS (42). The relative protein values of boiled krill and
`casein were 87.4 and 77.6, respectively, assuming whole egg as 100, With krill
`somewhat higher than casein (43).
`Comparison of nutritive values of raw and boiled krill with rat-feeding ex-
`periments showed that raw krill had a lower value than the boiled. in addition,
`boiled krill without heads had higher nutritive values than boiled krill with beads
`{44). Comparisons of nutritive values of ccphalothorax, trunk, and peeled meat
`of raw krill showed that the latter two are more efficiently digested and absorbed.
`There are two possible explanations for these observations: The chitin of the
`mpacc may hinder digcsLiOn and absorption, or the trunk may have more sulfur-
`eontalning amino acids than are found in whole krill. However, the nutritive
`value obtained by animal experiments is not always applicable to humans. five
`
`000001 8
`
`AKER877|T00011 8598
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`

`

`136
`
`SUZUKI AND SHIBATA
`
`
`Table 13. Prmelufilfio'mcy Radio. Biological Value of Krlll
`Weight
`Digeuibllily
`Baht
`
`3:24-
`. W“.....M
`Whammy pmlelu
`164.7
`4."
`1!?
`99.7
`93.4
`93.1
`Catch
`$7.3
`3.02
`4.25
`78.6
`W!)
`76.2
`Raw krill {whole body}
`75.3
`3.16
`1.25
`75.0
`93.1
`69.!
`Pccled m’
`73.2
`3.06
`(.13
`'75.!
`9!.)
`69.9
`Ccpltalotltotix'
`89.7
`3.23
`4.32
`$0.0
`34.8
`75.5
`
`78.]
`96.6
`Iall mcal‘
`95.1 _
`3.4"
`4.38
`80.9
`“’5“: protein clficlency min; NPR: net pickle min: 3V: biologiat "rue; NW: net pmldn utilization.
`”Each part ls of defined krill.
`
`adult men were confined for a specific period under controlled conditions (45].
`Some were fed proleinless food as a base plus 0.3 g/kg body weight of krill prov
`win wh lie when received 0.5 s/kg body weight of wholeesg pmtcln. The results
`showed that the net protein utilization of boiled krill was 89% ol‘that of whole-
`egg protein. The nutritive value or krill obtained with humans was similar to
`that obtained with rats. Thus, these data show that values obtained from m ex-
`periments are applicable to humans in the case of krill proteins.
`
`PROCESSING 0N SHIPS
`
`Conditions Required lot Processing Krill
`
`Because of the characteristics of kn’ll. processing into the final products must
`be accomplished as soon as possible after catch. Krill fishing is not done con-
`tinuously. However, after temporarily storing the catch in a stack pool, process-
`ing becomes continuous. Figures 7 and 8 show scenes of krill handling on a boat.
`Krill stored in a pool. in particular a small one, is heavily damaged by the rolling
`of the boat.
`Before processing begins. other animals—such as fishes. jellyfish, squids,
`eta—van screened Out.
`The average weight or krill is as little as 0.6 g.