IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 43, NO. 3, AUGUST 1994
`
`Wireless Communications Going Into the 21st
`Century
`
`645
`
`Donald L. Schilling, Fellow, ZEEE
`(Invited Paper)
`
`evolution of telecommunications, from the
`Abstract-The
`wired phone to personal communications services, is resulting
`in the availability of wireless products not previously consid-
`ered practical.
`The user of a cellular or personal communication system
`wants to use one phone for all of his intended needs. Thus, a
`single portable phone should be able to operate in a residence,
`as a cordless phone; in a vehicle using a cellular system, in an
`office using a WPBX; and outside with wireless local access.
`Broad-band code-division multiple access (B-CDMA) is a
`technique which allows PCS operation in the cellular frequency
`band in conjunction with existing cellular service, as well as in
`the PCS band (1850-1990 MHz in the U.S.). Using B-CDMA,
`high-quality voice with no dropped calls as well as data-rate-
`on-demand can be achieved, which will permit ISDN and mul-
`timedia communications at power levels which are much less
`than that required for other technologies.
`This paper describes the present cellular and PCS environ-
`ments, as well as the evolution of these environments into the
`21st century, and explains how broad-band CDMA can provide
`the one-phone service required by business people as well as
`people at home.
`
`INTRODUCTION
`T was about 20 years ago when Peter Goldmark intro-
`
`I duced the concept of the wired city: the interconnection
`
`of computers, faxes, and telephones in the office and be-
`tween offices. Today, even hotels provide data and voice
`mail service and electronic check-out. Indeed, this is the
`decade of wireless telecommunications. The last decade,
`the 1980's, was the decade of computers. During that
`decade, we all .went out and purchased computers. We
`brought them home and then looked for an application.
`Most still use the computer primarily as a word processor.
`During this decade, we will purchase wireless tele-
`everyone knows what to do with a tele-
`phones-and
`phone.
`Today, not only has Goldmark's dream become a real-
`ity, the wired city is taken for granted, and we are all hard
`at work redefining that dream, replacing wires by wireless
`radio transmission. Indeed, Fig. 1 is an excerpt of an 1865
`Boston Post editorial which recognizes that wired com-
`munications is not a preferred approach. Our thinking
`about telecommunications has changed dramatically over
`
`Manuscript received September 30, 1993.
`The author is with InterDigital Communications Corporation, Great
`Neck, NY 11021.
`IEEE Log Number 9403343.
`
`"Well-
`informed people
`know it is
`impossible to
`transmit the voice
`over wires and that,
`were it possible to
`do so, the thing
`would be of no
`practical value".
`
`Excerpt from an 1865
`Boston Post editorial.
`
`Fig. 1. Wired communication should be replaced by wireless systems.
`
`the past five-ten years. In 1989, Shelby Bryan, CEO of
`Millicom, and this author went to see the then Chairman
`of the FCC, Mr. Alfred Sykes, requesting an experimen-
`tal license. The license was used to prove that personal
`communications services (PCS) could be supplied in the
`frequency band 1850- 1990 MHz in the U . S . and in sim-
`ilar frequency bands elsewhere in the world, using a tech-
`nology new to commercial applications, broad-band code-
`division multiple access [l]. At about the same time, we
`saw the emergence of capitalism throughout the world. A
`requirement of capitalism is the need to have voice and
`data communications. In order to move quickly, as well
`as inexpensively, to provide such communications, coun-
`tries began to employ a wireless loop solution using
`FDMA or TDMA. Fig. 2 shows how TDMA (or FDMA)
`is used and where B-CDMA can be used to advantage.
`PCS means different things to different people. PCS
`means a one-phone solution to one's communication
`
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`Fig. 2. Wireless technologies and applications.
`
`needs. It should provide wired line voice quality and data
`rate on demand so that fax, modem, and video can be
`communicated. We call this multimedia communications,
`and it requires data rate capability to 144 kb/s. The One
`Phone, illustrated in Fig. 3, allows us to start making calls
`as soon as we awaken, as we exercise, and during break-
`fast. This is the cordless phone mode of operation. When
`we go outside, the call automatically shifts to a local base
`station at the curb-the wireless access mode. Next, we
`enter our car, and the call shifts to a cellular type of ser-
`vice. Finally, in the office, the One Phone shifts to a wire-
`less PBX service.
`The result is One Phone, which allows you to start talk-
`ing early in the morning when you awaken and to con-
`tinue talking until you go to sleep. A service provider’s
`dream. What are the characteristics of the One Phone?
`Arther D. Little was commissioned by Millicom to deter-
`mine what the consumer wanted. The results were loud
`and clear. As illustrated in Fig. 4, they are
`Wired line quality and wireless convenience-No
`dropped calls. Recent testing has demonstrated that cur-
`rent digital cellular quality is poorer than analog cellular.
`Privacy-When using a cellular phone, do not say
`anything you do not want the world to know. A thriving
`business is to tune in with your spectrum analyzer-a
`leading electronic distributor actually sells an inexpensive
`receiver which is readily adapted to receive cellular calls.
`You have all heard of the Mafia leader in Sicily who
`eluded the police for 22 years and was caught because he
`used a cellular phone.
`Datu rate on demand-Business users require data up
`to the ISDN rate of 144 kb/s.
`Within the next five years, cellular at 850 MHz and
`PCS at 1900 MHz will provide competitive services at
`
`Fig. 3. PCS using One Phone.
`
`QUALITY
`
`High quality voice using Adaptive DPCM
`Fax and modem interface
`Direct data service
`Low outage time
`
`Fast handoff in cellular applications
`Privacy
`
`VALUE -
`
`Largest number of users/square mite
`Lowest cost for handset and base
`Fig. 4. Characteristics of B-CDMA.
`foraasts . ,. and
`user atrrptilna h ~ \ a e n much faster than f!sl ot olhar ntwly.lntrc%ed product6 .
`.
`* Celkrlar telephone rowlh has dnmaUcdl weeded moat lndw
`
`I
`
`CCUUlU
`Ttlephone
`UMU
`
`NumberolUBm
`
`Y u n to Reach One MUlion b
`User8 after Matkrl Intmduetlon
`
`Number
`Of UItJ
`
`I
`
`d
`
`competitive prices. Fig. 5 shows that demand is so great
`and the time to market so small that we vastly underesti-
`mate the market. In the U.S., the FCC probably will limit
`the cellular service providers’ ability to provide PCS ser-
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`vice in the same geographical region in order to increase
`competition. In order to allow the cellular providers the
`ability to compete with the PCS providers, InterDigital
`Communications Corporation (IDC) has developed a cel-
`lular overlay system using broad-band CDMA technol-
`ogy, in which the B-CDMA, PCS system shares the same
`spectrum as the cellular users who employ FDMA or
`TDMA/FDMA technology [2]. Thus, by using the spec-
`trum efficiently, a “first class” PCS system can be added
`to the present “economy class” cellular system.
`The reason the cellular system is referred to as the
`“economy class” is not price, for as we all know, cellular
`service is expensive, but because there is a lack of pri-
`vacy, poor quality voice (compared to wired line service),
`dropped calls due to fading, and minimal data handling
`capability. Testing of this cellular overlay system will be-
`gin in Des Moines, IA, with US Cellular as host.
`In the United States, 140 MHz has been set aside, be-
`tween 1850 and 1990 MHz for PCS use. Channels with
`three different bandwidths, 5, 10, and 15 MHz transmit
`and receive, will probably be auctioned in 1995 to service
`providers in different regions of the country. Since 1989,
`numerous field tests have been performed with service
`providers which verified the operation of PCS systems us-
`ing B-CDMA. The demonstrated characteristics include
`the following.
`Privacy; almost no fading, outdoor or indoor; data
`on demand with multimedia data transmission capability;
`very high capacity-several hundred simultaneous users
`per antenna sector.
`Interoperability with microwave users.
`Indoor operation: In a major New York City hospi-
`tal, X-ray data were transmitted from the X-ray mom to
`the head radiologist’s office, without coding, at 9.6 kb/s.
`Wireless operation was demonstrated in the offices of a
`major investment banking firm in New York by putting
`the base station in the entrance area and walking around
`and communicating throughout the office.
`Wireless local access was demonstrated with a major
`cable operator in San Diego, CA. Operation throughout
`the Wall Street area has also been demonstrated; this is
`the urban “jungle” where there are many people and nar-
`row streets, and where it is critical that the system oper-
`ates properly. All of these measurements were taken dur-
`ing the day, while people were at work, in the heart of
`traffic.
`In a military environment, a broad-band CDMA system
`could result in One Phone being using by our troops. In-
`deed, in June 1993, demonstrations were performed at
`Fort Gordon showing that PCS, using B-CDMA, could
`be used to save troops’ lives. To do this, video was trans-
`mitted at 64 kb/s from a simulated battlefield to Walter
`Reed Medical Hospital. As illustrated in Fig. 6, using
`two-way voice communication, the expert at Walter Reed
`would be able to give advice to the medical officer on the
`battlefield. This demonstration was repeated on the White
`House lawn to President Clinton and Vice President Gore,
`and again at Fort Benning.
`
`fbiiiiik Cdsis Intervention System
`
`*
`
`LAW ENFORCEMENT
`
`‘--
`Fig. 6. PCS can be used for emergency medical service, law enforcement,
`and on the battlefield.
`
`0 ” n I E ~
`
`SATELLITE-GROUND COMMUNICATION: THE LEO
`Another example of a PCS system, for the 21st century,
`is the proposed service to be provided by the GSO, ICO,
`or LEO satellites. This service is intended for rural users,
`either mobile or fixed, or for urban users, to bypass the
`local telephone system. As an example of rural service,
`consider communication to a caravan or to a ship. Or con-
`sider communication to a new village in an area of Russia
`where oil exploration in starting. As an example of urban
`bypass communications, consider a system placed on top
`of a large office building, enabling all occupants to bypass
`the local telephone company when making a long distance
`call.
`The differences between the different satellites systems
`focus on distance, number of satellites, capacity, and de-
`lay. All satellites use numerous spot beams to illuminate
`the ground. The GSO uses fewer satellites, but they are
`more distant from the ground, and therefore the user no-
`tices a significant delay. LEO satellites require more fre-
`quent handoff between satellites since, during a conver-
`sation, the mobile user may be illuminated in sequence by
`several satellites. Recently, the FCC allocated 16 MHz of
`bandwidth for LEO applications. About 5 MHz was al-
`located to Motorola’s Iridium system, and the remaining
`11 MHz was given to the CDMA systems. Ellipsat, which
`uses an elliptical orbit to minimize the number of satel-
`lites required, employs B-CDMA to maximize perfor-
`mance.
`It is interesting to note that, using TDMA, the satellite
`systems cannot communicate with a user within a build-
`ing. There just is not sufficient fade margin for such com-
`munication. On the other hand, a recent study showed that
`a CDMA paging service from a satellite could reach users
`within a building. Thus, after receiving the page, one must
`go outside to an unshaded spot or to the roof of a tall
`building in order to place a call using TDMA [3].
`THE WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP
`Now, let us consider the wireless local loop application
`illustrated in Fig. 7. As mentioned earlier, healthy eco-
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`USES EXISTING HOUSE WIRING FOR WylED PHONES
`
`*
`
`BuBSllNlES FOR CORDLESS PHONE
`
`ROAM INSIDE, OUTSIDE, IN CAR, AROUND THE NEIGHBORHOOD
`’ COMPETES WITH LOCAL EXCHANGE CARRIER
`
`r-”7
`
`Fig. 9. The wireless city.
`
`FDMA systems, with their lack of privacy, are not ideal
`solutions, nor are cellular systems which employ fre-
`quency reuse, which is needed in a multicell system, but
`which results in great spectral inefficiencies in a fixed,
`single-cell wireless loop unless the system is redesigned,
`using different filters, etc. If 5 , 10, 20 MHz or more spec-
`trum is available, a B-CDMA wireless local loop is ideal.
`Such a system is very desirable since it provides wired
`line quality voice, extreme privacy, and high data rates.
`It also offers mobility.
`
`MULTIPATH FADING-THE FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATION
`OF A WIRELESS SYSTEM
`A major advantage of broad-band CDMA is its immu-
`nity to fading caused by multipath signals, and its ability
`to compensate for received signal variations due to fading
`and shadowing through the use of adaptive power control.
`The received signal generally consists of delayed versions
`of the transmitted signal which are the multipath signals.
`Those delayed versions of the signal that arrive within a
`chip duration and subtract cause the received signal to
`“fade.” Those multipath signals arriving outside the chip
`duration result in an increase in the interference level since
`these components look like additional CDMA signals;
`however, they do not produce fading. Furthermore, the
`power contained in each of these greatly delayed signals
`is significantly reduced by the “processing gain” of the
`B-CDMA system. (The processing gain is the ratio of the
`bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal divided by the
`information bit rate.) The fade depth is inversely propor-
`tional to the bandwidth of the B-CDMA signal, Le., the
`wider the signal bandwidth, the smaller the chip duration
`and the fewer the multipath components that fall within a
`chip duration. Hence, the probability of a frequency-flat
`fade decreases as the bandwidth increases [4], [5].
`Fig. 10 presents the fade probability and fade depth as
`a function of signal bandwidth. Experimental results were
`obtained for bandwidths of 48, 30, 22, 11, 2, MHz and
`CW. These experiments were performed in an office, in
`the suburbs, and in downtown New York City. Note the
`increase in the fade depth as a function of signal band-
`width. Note particularly that of the fade depth varies only
`slightly for bandwidths exceeding 11 MHz, but increases
`sharply for bandwidths of 5 MHz or less. For example, a
`narrow-band, 30 kHz communication system would re-
`
`l
`
`Fig. 7. Wireless local access.
`
`Trans ortable
`S V d L
`1 Ullnpbne Bqulpmat
`Fig. 8. The Ultraphone TDMA system provides wireless access.
`
`nomic growth requires that regions of a country which
`previously had no telephone communications obtain good
`quality telephony immediately. For most of these coun-
`tries, low cost, as well as immediate installation, are re-
`quired. The solution to this problem is a wireless local
`loop. Such a system connects directly to the central office
`switch in a city, and then, using point-to-multipoint trans-
`mission, connects to remote subscriber units at designated
`factories, office buildings, and residences. Wireless coin
`phones are also possible connections. Technologies cur-
`rently being used for this type of service are analog FDMA
`and TDMA. These systems are narrow band and typically
`operate in a large, single-cell environment, using the
`spectrum very inefficiently. For example, IDC offers a
`four-call/25 kHz channel, 16-PSK, TDMA system (Fig.
`8) called the Ultraphone. This system encodes the voice
`using a 14.4 kbls vocoder. The system provides almost
`wireline quality. Quitaque, TX, illustrated in Fig. 9, is
`the first wireless city in the U.S. GTE is the service pro-
`vider, and they provide wireless access from all buildings
`to the switch using the Ultraphone. Voice, fax, and mo-
`dem capability exists.
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`Fades @uirm T”k.sion for ma = 0.5
`
`FADE DEPTH IN MANHAlTAN
`Fig. 10. Narrow-band systems must transmit more power than wide-band
`systems due to fading and shadowing.
`
`mnhndV1, Ulr
`
`m
`-.
`
`40
`
`titnahnmmcmds
`Fig. 12. A typical fading signal.
`
`loo
`
`I20
`
`any of the observed multipaths. Note that the multipath
`signals were spaced by more than 100 ns apart. Typical
`spacing in an urban area is found to be about 200 ns (the
`resolution of the system was 25 ns) [6].
`In summary, we find that wider band B-CDMA systems
`suffer less fading since the chip duration is usually less
`than the multipath spread of the channel. In addition, far-
`out multipath components, such as those reflected from a
`distant “mountain,” are most likely to be smaller than
`the primary signal component. The need for a time diver-
`sity system, such as RAKE, therefore diminishes as the
`bandwidth increases. Of course, a RAKE receiver could
`always be used to further enhance the performance of any
`CDMA system.
`
`Fig. 11. Multipath signals are typically spaced 200 ns.
`
`quire 12 dB more power than a broad-band, 20 MHz
`CDMA system communicating over the same path.
`
`DIVERSITY RECEPTION
`In a severe fading environment, diversity combining
`can often be used to improve performance. Time diversity
`and space diversity are often added to a direct sequence,
`spread spectrum CDMA which is a frequency diversity
`technique. Space diversity is usually achieved through the
`use of multiple antennas at the base station. However,
`future generation CDMA handsets will employ beam-
`steered antennas. Time diversity is readily achieved using
`a “RAKE” receiver. A “RAKE” receiver is one that re-
`ceives each multipath signal, delays each by an appropri-
`ate amount, and then combines them following some al-
`gorithm. Experiments were performed in which a RAKE
`receiver was used to display each of the received multi-
`path signals. Fig. 11 shows experimental results, ob-
`tained in Manhattan, using a RAKE which views the sig-
`nal for 4 ps. In this experiment, a transmitter was placed
`on the top of a building located on W. 23rd St. and Ave
`of the Americas (6th Ave.) in New York City. The re-
`ceiver was on the ground between 26th and 27th St. and
`6th Ave., out of sight of the antenna. Note that the pri-
`mary signal returns were 6-10 dB (or more) greater than
`
`ADAPATIVE POWER CONTROL
`Another technique used to compensate for fading or
`shadowing is adaptive power control. To illustrate this
`technique, consider that a spread spectrum base station
`receives all of the incoming signals simultaneously. Thus,
`if any siganl is received at a higher level than the others,
`that signal’s receiver will have a higher signal-to-noise
`ratio, and therefore a lower bit error rate. The broad-band
`CDMA base station receivers ensure that each remote mo-
`bile transmits at the correct power level by telling each
`remote, every 500 p s , whether to increase or decrease its
`power. This technique is called adaptive power control
`(APC).
`Fig. 12 shows a typical fading signal. The deep fades
`correspond to speeds up to 80 mi/h. Fig. 13 shows an
`algorithm by which the control voltage in the remote unit
`changes its power to follow command signals from the
`base to increase or to decrease this power. Note that the
`remote unit changes its power by a factor of 1.5 when
`going in the same direction, or by a factor of 0.5 when
`going in the opposite direction. In the implementation
`shown, the minimum step size was 0.25 dB and the max-
`imum step size was 4 dB. The result was a bit error rate
`The use of interleaving and FEC usually can
`of 8 X
`correct these errors.
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`Fig. 13. The remote units transmitted power to counteract the fade of
`Fig. 12.
`
`Fig. 15. Efficiency in terms of users/MHz.
`
`\ /
`
`*dce activity detection ia not employed
`
`Fig. 14. B-CDMA capacity.
`
`Broad-band CDMA wireless access permits users to re-
`ceive communications within a building as well as while
`they are
`i’e’,
`Or driving* Adaptive power
`control (APC) with interleaving and forward error correc-
`tion permits the B-CDMA system to maintain an accept-
`able, low bit error rate.
`
`CONCLUSION
`
`Fig. 14 illustrates the performance of a B-CDMA sys-
`tem operating at various data rates and bandwidths. These
`results were obtained by simulations which included
`
`Fig. 16. A “standard” wireless telephone.
`
`shadowing, realistic antenna patterns, a multicellular en-
`vironment, etc. [2].
`Voice activity detection, which can result in doubling
`the number of voice users, is not employed. To illustrate
`the use of the table, consider that a bandwidth of 20 MHz
`is available for transmission and also for reception, and
`that a data rate of 64 kb/s is required. Then, using a six-
`sector antenna with a single cell, the top table shows that
`there can be 26.95
`20 = 539 simultaneous transmis-
`sions taking place. With a 10: 1 subscriber-user ratio,
`to 5390 sub-
`such a cell can provide high-qudity
`scribers.
`Fig. 15 compares B-CDMA to other systems operating
`in a cellular environment. The efficiencies, in terms of
`simultaneous users/MHz, of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
`systems are compared. AMPS is considered as the base-
`line system, in which 56 simultaneous conversations can
`occur in a 25 MHz bandwidth. Hence, there are 2.24
`users/MHz. Note that B-CDMA has the highest capacity
`since it minimizes the effect of multipath.
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`Fig. 19. A high-quality video display and camera will be a part of every-
`one’s handset.
`
`REFERENCES
`
`[I] Spread Spectrum goes Commerical
`[2] Broadband-CDMA Overlay
`[3] Satellite paper-Bruno
`[4] Schilling
`[5] Vinko
`[6] Schilling
`[7] Broadband-CDMA Overlay
`
`Fig. 17. A typical wireless handset.
`
`Fig. 18. A wireless handset with PDA and computer capability.
`
`Figs. 16-19 show the next generation of wireless tele-
`phones. Fig. 16 is a wireless phone that can be purchased
`at any department store. It plugs into the wall for power
`and has a battery backup. The handsets shown in Figs.
`17-19 can be used to provide cellular telephone, cellular
`videophone, and full-featured touch-screen PDA.
`By the 21st century, we will be a wireless society.
`
`-
`
`\
`
`
`
`Donald L. Schilling 6’56-M’58-SM’69-F’75)
`is Vice Chairman of the Board of Directors of
`InterDigital Communications Corporation. He
`also serves as Executive Vice President and Chief
`Technical Officer of InterDigital Communications
`Corporation, and is Chairman, President, and
`Chief Executive Officer of InterDigital Telecom,
`Inc .
`He was formerly Chairman of the Board, Chief
`Executive Officer, and President of SCS TELE-
`COM/MOBILECOM. Inc.. where he led the de-
`velopment of broad-band CDMA and began the field of PCS in the U.S.
`SCS also provided training as well as research and development in tele-
`communications for military clients. He is the coauthor of ten international
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`best-selling textbooks and more than 250 papers in telecommunications and
`electronics. He is a past member of the U.S. Army Science Board. He
`retired in May 1992 as the Herbert G. Kayser, Distinguished Professor of
`Electrical Engineering at the City College of the City University of New
`York, where he had been a Professor since 1969. He is now President
`Emeritus. Prior to moving to CCNY, he was a Professor at the Polytechnic
`Institute of New York. He is widely recognized throughout the technical
`world, including the military and other government agencies, as an expert
`in telecommunications and electronic warfare. He is a frequent lecturer at
`national and international symposia, a consultant to government agencies,
`and the holder of over 20 patents in telecommunications technology. An
`internationally known expert in the field of communications systems, he
`has made many notable contributions in personal communications, meteor-
`
`burst communications systems, spread spectrum communications systems,
`FM and phase-locked systems, and HF systems. His design of an adaptive
`data modulator, used for voice coding, is used on the Space Shuttle.
`Dr. Schilling was President of IEEE Communications Society from 1980
`to 1981, and a member of the Board of Directors of the IEEE from 1982
`to 1983. He was Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS
`ON COMMU-
`NICATIONS and Director of Publications from 1968 to 1978. During this
`
`period, he initiated IEEE COMMUNICATIONS MAGAZINE and IEEE JOURNAL
`ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS.
`During his term as President, he
`also initiated the MILCOM and INFOCOM Conferences. He is a member
`of Sigma Xi, and has been an international representative for the IEEE in
`Russia where he was part of the Popov Society exchange and in China
`where he led an IEEE delegation.
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