`
`Exhibit 1014 — Part 7Exhibit 1014 — Part 7
`
`Exhibit 1014 – Part 7
`
`
`
`

`

`178
`
`Chapter 4
`
`Command Languages
`
`Grudin, Jonathan and Barnard, Phil, When does an abbreviation become a word and
`related questions, Proc. CHI '85 Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems,-
`ACM, New York (1985), 121-126.
`
`Hanson, Stephen J., Kraut, Robert E., and Farber, James M., Interface design and
`multivariate analysis of UNIX command use, ACM Transactions on Office Informa-
`tion Systems 2, 1 (1984), 42-57.
`Hauptmann, Alexander G. and Green, Bert F., A comparison of command, menu-
`selection and natural language computer programs, Behaviour and Information
`Technology 2, 2 (1983), 163-178.
`Hayes-Roth, Frederick, The knowledge-based expert system: A tutorial, IEEE Com-
`puter 17, 9 (September 1984), 11-28.
`Jarke, Matthias, Turner, Jon A., Stohr, Edward A., Vassiliou, Yannis, White, Norman
`H., and Michielsen, Ken, A field evaluation of natural language for data retrieval,
`IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering SE-11, 1 (January 1985), 97-113.
`Kraut, Robert E., Hanson, Stephen J., and Farber, James, M., Command use and
`interface design, Proc. CHI '83 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems,
`ACM, New York (1983), 120-123.
`Landauer, T. K., Calotti, K. M., and Hartwell, S., Natural command names and initial
`learning, Communications of the ACM 26, 7 (July 1983), 495-503.
`Ledgard, H., Whiteside, J. A., Singer, A., and Seymour, W., The natural language of
`interactive systems, Communications of the ACM 23 (1980), 556-563.
`Napier, H. Albert, Lane, David, Batsell, Richard R., and Guadango, Norman 8.,
`Impact of a restricted natural language interface on ease of learning and produc-
`tivity, Communications of the ACM 32, 10 (October 1989), 1190-1198.
`Norman, Donald, The trouble with UNIX, Datamation 27 (November 1981), 139-150.
`
`Pausch, Randy and Leatherby, James H., An empirical study: Adding voice input to
`a graphical editor, Journal of the American Voice Input/Output Society 9, 2 (July 1991),
`55-66.
`
`Roberts, Terry, Evaluation of Computer Text Editors, Ph. D. dissertation, Department of
`Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA (1980).
`Rosenberg, Jarrett, Evaluating the suggestiveness of command names, Behaviour and
`Information Technology 1 (1982), 371-400.
`Rosson, Mary Beth, Patterns of experience in text editing, Proc. CHI '83 Conference on
`Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM, New York (1983), 171-175.
`
`Scapin, Dominique L., Computer commands labelled by users versus imposed
`commands and the effect of structuring rules on recall, Proc. Conference on Human
`Factors in Computer Systems, available from ACM, Washington, DC (1982), 17-19.
`Schneider, M. L., Ergonomic considerations in the design of text editors, In Vassiliou,
`Y. (Editor), Human Factors and Interactive Computer Systems, Ablex, Norwood, NJ
`(1984), 141-161.
`
`Schneider, M. L., Hirsh-Pasek, K., and Nudelman, S., An experimental evaluation of
`delimiters in a command language syntax, International Journal of Man-Machine
`Studies 20, 6 (June 1984), 521-536.
`
`

`

`References
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`179
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`Shneiderman, Ben, Software Psychology: Human Factors in Computer and Information
`Systems, Little, Brown, Boston (1980).
`Small, Duane and Weldon, Linda, An experimental comparison of natural and
`structured query languages, Human Factors 25 (1983), 253-263.
`Tennant, Harry R., Ross, Kenneth M., and Thompson, Craig W., Usable natural
`language interfaces through menu-based natural language understanding, Proc.
`CHI '83 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM, New York
`(1983), 154-160.
`
`

`

`CHAPTER 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`Leibniz sought to make the form of a symbol reflect its
`content. ’’In signs,” he wrote, "one sees an advantage for
`discovery that is greatest when they express the exact
`nature of a thing briefly and, as it were, picture it; then,
`
`indeed, the labor of thought is wonderfully diminished.”
`
`Frederick Kreiling, ”Leibniz," Scientific American, May 1968
`
`

`

`Chapter 5
`5.1 Introduction
`5.2 bxamplcs of Direct Mani
`5.3 Explanations of Direct M
`s A Visual Thinking and Ice
`5.5 Dam Maxlipulslinn Pru
`
`Chapter 5
`5.1 Introduction
`
`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`5.3 Explanations of Direct Manipulation
`5.4 Visual Thinking and Icons
`5.5 Direct-Manipulation Programming
`5.6 Home Automation
`
`5.7 Remote Direct Manipulation
`5.8 Virtual Reality
`5.9 Practitioner's Summary
`5.10 Researchers Agenda
`
`5.1
`
`Introduction
`
`Certain interactive systems generate a glowing enthusiasm among users that
`is in marked contrast with the more common reaction of grudging accep-
`tance or outright hostility. The enthusiastic users’ reports reflect the follow-
`ing positive feelings:
`
`° Mastery of the system
`
`0 Competence in performing tasks
`
`- Ease in learning the system originally and in assimilating advanced
`features
`
`Confidence in the capacity to retain mastery over time
`Enjoyment in using the system
`Eagerness to show the system off to novices
`
`Desire to explore more powerful aspects of the system
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct—Manipulation Systems
`
`183
`
`These feelings are not universal, but this amalgam is meant to convey an
`image of the truly pleased user. The central ideas seem to be visibility of the
`objects and actions of interest; rapid, reversible, incremental actions; and
`replacement of complex command-language syntax by direct manipulation
`of the object of interest—hence, the term direct manipulation, The SSOA
`model provides a sound foundation for understanding direct manipulation,
`since it steers the designer to represent the task domain objects and actions,
`while minimizing the computer concepts and the syntactic load.
`
`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`No single system has all the admirable attributes or design features—that
`may be impossible. Each of the following examples, however, has enough of
`them to win the enthusiastic support of many users.
`My favorite example of direct manipulation is driving an automobile. The
`scene is directly visible through the front window, and performance of
`actions such as braking or steering has become common knowledge in our
`culture. To turn left, the driver simply rotates the steering wheel to the left.
`The response is immediate and the scene changes, providing feedback to
`refine the turn. Imagine trying to turn by issuing a command LEFT
`30
`DEGREES and then another command to see the new scene; but that is the
`
`level of operation of many office—automation tools of today! Another well-
`established example is air-traffic control in which users see a representation
`of the airspace with brief data blocks attached to each plane. Controllers
`move a trackball to point at specific planes and to perform actions.
`
`5.2.1 Display editors and word processors
`
`In the early 19805, users of full-page display editors were great advocates of
`their systems, preferring these editors to the then—common line-oriented text
`editors. A typical comment was, "Once you've used a display editor, you will
`never want to go back to a line editor—you’l1 be spoiled.” Similar comments
`came from users of stand—alone word processors such as the WANG system,
`early personal computer word processors
`such as WORDSTAR,
`FINALWORD, XYWRITE, and Microsoft WORD, or display editors such as
`EMACS on the MIT/Honeywell MULTICS system or vi (for visual editor)
`on the UNIX system. A beaming advocate called EMACS ”the one true
`editor."
`
`Roberts (1980) found overall performance times with line-oriented editors
`were twice as long as with display editors. Training time with display
`editors is also reduced, so there is evidence to support the enthusiasm of
`
`

`

`184
`
`Chapter 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`.
`
`2
`
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`
`F om
`30.3.9
`Chicago
`Cour 1 er
`Eumstile
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`Geneva
`Helvetica
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`Palatine
`
`For Macintosh was designed as a perform
`intended for the majority of Macintosh us
`extensive capabilities with the ease of use
`Macintosh unique. Writellnll For Mninto
`in two words: WYSIWYG and /7157".
`
`C By WYSMVG, we mean completely 'whudyou-see-4'sJNhat-
`you-get." Not only fonts, font sizes, styles, and paragraphs
`are shown, but headers, footers, footnotes, columns, and
`page breaks are always shown on the screen as they will
`sppearwhen printed.
`It is no longernecessaryto rep_aaina.te or
`reformat adocumentt see he
`it will
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`'
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`---.
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`Because Writellov For Macintosh
`sihdanintosh application, ratherthan bein
`computer, it carefully follows the Macint
`guidelines. This has the advantage of in
`especially familiar to Macwrite users.
`complete
`cut
`and paste
`between
`ancessories.
`
`The manual
`Writeloi For Macintosh was wntt
`principal author ol
`.«9isn'.@ /1-£u:iv'.itvs7‘i,
`information tor Macintosh developers
`
`Figure 5.1
`
`WriteNow, an example of a WYSIWYG ("What You See Is What You Get”) editor.
`(Courtesy of T/ Maker Company, Mountain View, CA.)
`
`display-editor devotees. Furthermore, office-automation evaluations consis-
`tently favor full-page display editors for secretarial and executive use.
`In the past decade, what you see is what you get
`(WYSIWYG) word
`processors have become standard. Claris MacWrite II and Microsoft Word
`4.0 are popular on the Macintosh; Microsoft Word and Lotus Ami Pro are
`challenging WordPerfect’s domination in the IBM PC and compatibles
`environment (Figure 5.1). An interesting combination of WYSIWYG display
`editors and command editing over structured documents shows two views
`simultaneously and permits editing on either View (Brooks, 1991). There are
`some advantages to command editing approaches, such as that history
`keeping is easier, more flexible markup languages are available (for ex-
`ample, SGML), macros tend to be more powerful, and some tasks are
`simpler to express (for example, change all
`italics to bold). The
`next generation of direct—manipulation display editors should accommodate
`many of these features. The advantages of display editors include
`
`- Display of a full page of text: Showing 20 to 60 lines of text gives the reader
`a clearer sense of context for each sentence, while permitting simpler
`reading and scanning of the document. By contrast, working with the
`one—line-at-a-time View offered by some line editors is like seeing the
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`185
`
`world through a narrow cardboard tube. Some large displays can
`support two full pages of text, set side by side.
`
`Display of the document in the form that it will appear when the final printing
`is done: Eliminating the clutter of formatting commands also simplifies
`reading and scanning of the document. Tables,
`lists, page breaks,
`skipped lines, section headings, centered text, and figures can be
`viewed in their final form. The annoyance and delay of debugging the
`format commands are almost eliminated because the errors are appar-
`ent immediately.
`Show cursor action that is visible to the user: Seeing an arrow, underscore,
`or blinking box on the screen gives the operator a clear sense of where
`to focus attention and to apply action.
`Control cursor motion through physically obvious and intuitively natural
`means: Arrow keys or cursor-motion devices—such as a mouse, joy-
`stick, or graphic tablet—provide natural physical mechanisms for
`moving the cursor. This setup is in marked contrast to commands such
`as UP
`6 that require an operator to convert the physical action into a
`correct syntactic form that may be difficult to learn and hard to recall,
`and thus may be a source of frustrating errors.
`Use labeled buttons for actions: Many workstations designed for use with
`display editors have buttons with actions etched onto them, such as
`INSERT, DELETE, CENTER, UNDERLINE, SUPERSCRIPT, BOLD, and
`SEARCH. These buttons act as a permanent menu-selection display to
`remind users of the features, so that users avoid memorization of a
`complex command-language syntax. On some editors, only 10 or 15
`labeled buttons provide the basic functionality. A specially marked
`button may be the gateway to the world of advanced or infrequently
`used features that are offered on the screen in menu form.
`
`Display of the results of an action immediately: When a button is pressed to
`move the cursor or center text, the results are shown immediately on
`the screen. Deletions are immediately apparent; the character, word, or
`line is erased, and the remaining text is rearranged. Similarly, insertions
`or text movements are shown after each keystroke or function-key
`press. In contrast, with line editors, users must issue print or display
`commands to see the results of changes.
`
`Provide rapid response and display: Most display editors operate at high
`speed; a full page of text appears in a fraction of a second. This high
`display rate coupled with short response time produces a thrilling
`sense of power and speed. Cursors can be moved quickly,
`large
`amounts of text can be scanned rapidly, and the results of actions can be
`shown almost instantaneously. Rapid response also reduces the need
`for additional commands and thereby simplifies design and learning.
`
`

`

`186
`
`Chapter 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`Line editors with slow display rates and long response times bog down
`the user. Speeding up line editors would add to their attractiveness, but
`they would still lack such features as direct overtyping, deletion, and
`insertion.
`
`Offer easily reversible actions: When users enter text, they repair an
`incorrect keystroke by merely backspacing and overstriking. They can
`make simple changes by moving the cursor to the problem area and
`overstriking, inserting, or deleting characters, words, or lines. A useful
`design strategy is to include natural inverse operations for each opera-
`tion (Section 4.4.3). An alternative offered by many display editors is a
`simple UNDO command to return the text to its state before the previous
`action or action sequence. The easy reversibility reduces user anxiety
`about making a mistake or destroying the file.
`
`Display editors are worth studying because the large market demand
`generates an active competition that propels the rapid evolutionary refine-
`ment of design. New directions for word processors include
`
`0 Integration of graphics, spreadsheets, animations, photographs, etc. in
`the body of a document. Advanced systems, such as Hewlett-Packard’s
`NewWave, even permit "hot links” so that, if the graphic or spread-
`sheet is changed, the copy in the document also will be changed.
`Desktop publication software to produce sophisticated printed formats
`with multiple columns and output to high-resolution printers. Multiple
`fonts, gray scales, and color permit preparation of high—quality docu-
`ments, newsletters, reports, newspapers, or books. Examples include
`Aldus PageMaker and Xerox Ventura.
`Slide-presentation software to produce text and color graphic slides for
`use as overhead transparencies or 35-millimeter slides, or directly from
`the computer with a large screen projector.
`Hypermedia environments with selectable buttons or embedded menu
`items to allow users to jump from one article to another. Links
`among documents, bookmarks, annotations, and tours can be added
`by readers.
`Improved macro facilities to enable users to construct, save, and edit
`sequences of frequently used actions. A related feature is a style sheet
`that allows users to specify and save a set of options for spacing, fonts,
`margins, etc.
`
`Spelling checkers have become standard on most full—feature word
`processors. Less common, but increasingly available, is an integrated
`thesaurus.
`
`Grammar checkers, such as Rightwriter or Grammatik IV, offer users
`comments about potential problems in writing style, such as use of
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`187
`
`passive voice, excessive use of certain words, or lack of parallel
`construction. Some writers, both novices and professionals, appreciate
`the comments and know they can decide whether to apply the sugges-
`tions. Critics point out, however, that the advice is often inappropriate
`and therefore wastes time.
`
`Document assemblers to Compose Complex documents such as contracts
`or wills, from standard paragraphs using appropriate language for
`males or females, citizens or foreigners, high, medium, or low income
`earners, renters or home owners, etc.
`
`5.2.2 VISICALC and its descendents
`
`The first electronic spreadsheet, VISICALC, was the product of a Harvard
`Business School student, Bob Frankston, who was frustrated when trying to
`carry out repetitious calculations in a graduate business course. With a
`friend, Dan Bricklin,
`they built an "instantly calculating electronic
`worksheet” (as the user manual described it) that permits computation and
`display of results across 254 rows and 63 columns. The worksheet can be
`programmed so that column 4 displays the sum of columns 1 through 3;
`then, every time a value in the first three columns changes, the fourth
`column changes as well. Complex dependencies among manufacturing
`costs, distribution costs, sales revenue, commissions, and profits can be
`stored for several sales districts and months so that the effects of changes on
`
`profits can be seen immediately.
`By simulating an accountant’s spreadsheet or worksheet, VISICALC
`made it easy for novices to comprehend the objects and permissible actions.
`The display of 20 rows and up to nine columns, with the provision for
`multiple windows, gave the user sufficient visible display for easy scanning
`of information and comprehension of relationships among entries. The
`command language for setting up the worksheet was tricky for novices to
`learn and for infrequent users to remember, but most users needed to learn
`only the basic commands. The distributor of VISICALC attributed the
`system's appeal to the fact that "it jumps,” referring to the user's delight in
`watching the propagation of changes across the screen.
`VISICALC users could try out many alternate plans easily, and could see
`the effects on sales or profit rapidly. Changes to commissions or economic
`slowdowns could be added quickly to the worksheet. The current status of
`the worksheet could be saved for later review.
`
`Competitors to VISICALC emerged quickly, and they made attractive
`improvements to the user interface and expanded the tasks that were
`supported. Among these, LOTUS 1-2-3 has come to dominate the market
`(Figure 5.2a), although there are many successful competitors, such as Excel
`and Quattro. They offer integration with graphics, three-dimensional repre-
`
`

`

`188
`
`Chapter 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`In
`Dallas
`
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`Figure 5.2(a)
`
`Lotus spreadsheets. (Figure 5.2a and b: Printed with permission of Lotus
`Development Corporation, Cambridge, MA.) (a) Early version of Lotus 1-2-3, the
`dominant spreadsheet program.
`
`sentations, multiple windows, and database features. The actions are in-
`voked easily with command menus. Advanced systems such as Improv
`(Figure 5.2b) are attempting to win users with novel ways of showing and
`manipulating data items and graphs.
`
`5.2.3
`
`Spatial data management
`
`In geographic applications, it seems natural to give a spatial representation
`in the form of a map that provides a familiar model of reality. The
`developers of the prototype spatial data-management system (Herot, 1980;
`1984) attribute the basic idea to Nicholas Negroponte of MIT. In one early
`scenario, the user was seated before a color-graphics display of the world
`and could zoom in on the Pacific Ocean to see markers for convoys of
`military ships (Figure 5.3). By moving a joystick, the user caused the screen
`to be filled with silhouettes of individual ships that could be zoomed in on to
`display detailed data—such as, ultimately, a full-color picture of the captain.
`In another scenario, icons representing such different aspects of a corpo-
`ration as personnel, an organizational chart, travel information, production
`data, and schedules were shown on a screen. By moving the joystick and
`zooming in on objects of interest, the user was taken through complex
`"information spaces” or "I-spaces” to locate the item of interest. A building
`floorplan showing departments might be displayed; when a department was
`chosen, individual offices became visible. As the cursor was moved into a
`room, details of the occupant appeared on the screen. If users chose the
`wrong room, they merely backed out and tried another. The lost effort was
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`189
`
`Apples
`Oranges
`Bananas
`
`Bananas
`Total Crop
`
`Oranges
`Bananas
`
`mass
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`
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`258
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`46667
`
`1 Total Crop - sum(Apples .. Bananas ) SKIP All Producers
`2. AH Fmuucevs - sum(0rgan|c Coup . Amalgamated)
`
`Formal
`
`Au nmani Llno5 Ia
`
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`
`smngnumner, places)
`surn(Ist)
`
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`Specific ¢'
`
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`
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`H
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`591 Default
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`
`Figure 5.2(b)
`
`Lotus’s lmprov, a spreadsheet program for the NeXT machine that has novel ways
`of showing and manipulating data. (Printed with permission of Lotus
`Development Corporation.)
`
`minimal, and there was no stigma attached to error. The recent Xerox PARC
`Information Visualizer is an ensemble of tools that permit three-dimensional
`animated explorations of buildings, cone-shaped file directories, organiza-
`tion charts, a perspective wall
`that puts featured items up front and
`centered, and several two- and three—dirnensional information layouts (Card
`etal., 1991).
`
`The Voyager Data Exploration Software for Windows enables users to
`explore spatial and temporal databases visually. For example, if a map of the
`United States and an energy-use plot for the previous 30 years are shown on
`the screen, the user can select a year on the plot and can then see energy use
`
`

`

`Chapter 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`Figure 5.3
`
`The Spatial Data Management System has three displays to show multiple levels of
`detail or related information. The user moves a joystick to traverse information
`spaces or to zoom in on a map to see more details about ship convoys. (Courtesy
`of the Computer Corporation of America, Cambridge, MA.)
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`191
`
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`Figure 5.4
`
`The Voyager Data Exploration Software with features for choosing a subset of data
`to show in detailed plots. Users can click on individual states to see energy use, or
`on the plot to select the year. (Courtesy of Husar, R. B., Oberman, T., and
`Hutchins, E. A., Environmental Informatics: Implementation Through the Voyager
`Data Exploration Software. Air and Waste Management Association 83rd Annual
`Meeting, Iune 24-29, 1990, Pittsburgh, PA.)
`
`for every state in that year (Figure 5.4). Alternatively, users can retrieve facts
`about a specific state by pointing and clicking on the map.
`The success of a spatial data-management system depends on the skill of
`the designers in choosing icons, graphical representations, and data layouts
`that are natural and comprehensible to the user. The joy of zooming in and
`out, or of gliding over data with a joystick, entices even anxious users, who
`quickly demand additional power and data.
`
`5.2.4 Video games
`
`For many people, the most exciting, well-engineered, and commercially
`successful application of these concepts lies in the world of video games
`(Crawford, 1984). The early but simple and popular game called PONG
`required the user to rotate a knob that moved a white rectangle on the
`screen. A white spot acted as a ping-pong ball that ricocheted off the wall
`
`

`

`192
`
`Chapter 5
`
`Direct Manipulation
`
`Figure 5.5(a)
`
`Video games. (a) Home video games are enjoyable computer applications that have
`become extremely popular (©1991 Nintendo. Courtesy of Nintendo).
`
`and had to be hit back by the movable white rectangle. Users developed
`speed and accuracy in placing the ”paddle” to keep the increasingly speedy
`ball from getting by, while the speaker emitted a ponging sound when the
`ball bounced. Watching someone else play for 30 seconds is all the training
`needed to become a competent novice, but many hours of practice are
`required to become a skilled expert.
`Later games, such as Missile Command, Donkey Kong, Pac Man, Tem-
`pest, TRON, Centipede, or Space Invaders, were much more sophisticated in
`their rules, color graphics, and sound effects. Recent games include video—
`disk images, two-person competition in tennis or karate, still higher resolu-
`tion, and stereo sound (Figures 5.5a and b). The designers of these games
`provide stimulating entertainment, a challenge for novices and experts, and
`many intriguing lessons in the human factors of interface design—somehow,
`they have found a way to get people to put quarters in the sides of
`computers. Thirty-rnillion Nintendo game players have penetrated to 70
`percent of American households that include 8 to 12 year olds. Brisk sales of
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`Figure 5.5(b)
`
`Video games employ direct manipulation principles to create a world of action and
`fantasy, such as a flight simulation of an old plane, Red Baron. (@1992 Dynamix, Inc.)
`
`Super Mario Brothers and variations testify to the games’ strong attraction,
`in marked contrast to the anxiety and resistance many users have for office
`automation equipment.
`These games provide a field of action that is simple to understand since it
`is an abstraction of reality-—learning is by analogy. The commands are
`physical actions, such as button presses, joystick motions, or knob rotations,
`Whose results are shown immediately on the screen. There is no syntax to
`remember, and therefore there are no syntax-error messages. If users move
`their spaceships too far left,
`then they merely use the natural inverse
`operation of moving back to the right. Error messages are unnecessary
`because the results of actions are obvious and can be reversed easily. These
`principles can be applied to office automation, personal computing, or other
`interactive environments.
`
`Most games continuously display a numeric score so that users can
`measure their progress and compete with their previous performance, with
`friends, or with the highest scorers. Typically, the 10 highest scorers get to
`store their initials in the game for regular display. This strategy provides one
`
`

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`Here are the parts to a distillation apparatus.
`Put the apparatus together by touching a piece
`and than touching where it goes on the column.
`
`3:
`
`C’)
`
`For help press HELP
`
`Figure 5.6(a)
`
`Cornputer—based instruction can become more appealing with direct manipulation,
`instead of drill and practice. This early CDC PLATO lesson, written by Stan Smith
`of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois, allows students to
`construct a distillation aparatus by using proper finger actions on a touch-sensitive
`screen. (Figure 5.6a and b: Courtesy of Stan Smith, University of Illinois.) (a) Once
`the student has assembled the apparatus and begun the experiment, the display
`shows an animation of the process with the graph of distillation temperature
`versus volume.
`
`form of positive reinforcement that encourages mastery. Malone’s (1981) and
`our studies with elementary-school children have shown that continuous
`display of scores is extremely valuable. Machine-generated feedback—such
`as ”Very good” or ”You’re doing great!”—is not as effective, since the same
`score means different things to different people. Users prefer to make their
`own subjective judgments and perceive the machine-generated messages as
`an annoyance and a deception.
`Many educational games use direct manipulation effectively. Elementary-
`or high-school students can learn about logic by using Rocky Boots, which
`shows logic circuits visually and lets students progress to more complex
`tasks by going through doors to enter a series of rooms.
`
`

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`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`195
`
`Touch COOL or MHRM to change bath temperature.
`To collect a fraction touch the receiver.
`
`Your receiver is overflowing‘
`
`Distillation temperature we volume
`8%
`---————
`
`73‘
`
`6)! 1-
`
`l:
`
`513
`
`46
`
`37¢
`
`-
`
`J3
`
`— —o—|——
`49!
`6.3
`8.6
`2E
`milliliters distilled
`
`127!
`
`To change bath
`temperature
`TOUCH
`
`COOL
`
`NEH
`
`Figure 5.6(b)
`
`The student experimenter has gotten into trouble.
`
`Stan Smith's chemistry lessons on the PLATO system enabled college
`students to conduct laboratory experiments by touching beakers, pipettes, or
`burners to assemble and operate equipment (Figure 5.6). A Navy training
`simulator shows gauges, dials, and knobs that users can manipulate directly
`to gain experience with boilers, valves, and so on (Hollan et al., 1984).
`Several versions of the Music Construction Set offer users the possibility of
`constructing musical scores by selecting and moving notes onto a staff.
`Carroll (1982) draws productive analogies between game—playing envi-
`ronments and applications-systems. However, game players are seeking
`entertainment and focus on the challenge of mastery, whereas applications-
`systems users focus on their task and may resent the intrusion of forced
`learning of system constraints. Furthermore, the random events that occur in
`most games are meant to challenge the user; in nongame designs, however,
`predictable system behavior is preferred. Game players are engaged in
`competition with the system, whereas applications-systems users appar-
`ently prefer a strong internal locus of control, which gives them the sense of
`being in charge.
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`5.2.5 Computer—aided design and manufacturing
`
`Many c0mputer~aided design (CAD) systems for automobiles, electronic cir-
`cuitry, architecture, aircraft, or newspaper layout use principles of direct
`manipulation (Figure 5.7). The operator may see a circuit schematic on the
`screen and, with lightpen touches, be able to move resistors or capacitors
`into or out of the proposed circuit. When the design is complete,
`the
`computer can provide information about current, voltage drops, and fabrica-
`tion costs, and warnings about inconsistencies or manufacturing problems.
`Similarly, newspaper-layout artists or automobile—body designers can easily
`try multiple designs in minutes, and can record promising approaches until
`they find a better one.
`The pleasures in using these systems stem from the capacity to manipu-
`late the object of interest directly. and to generate multiple alternatives
`rapidly. Some systems have complex command languages; others have
`moved to using cursor action and graphics-oriented commands.
`
`Figure 5.7
`
`Many computer—aided design (CAD) systems use a direcbmanipulation interaction
`style. This design tool, AutoCAD, supports three-dimensional designs. (Courtesy
`of AutoDesk, Inc., Sausalito, CA.)
`
`

`

`5.2 Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems
`
`197
`
`Another related direction is the world of computer-aided manufacturing
`(CAM) and process control. Honeywell's process-control system provides
`the manager of an oil refinery, paper mill, or power-utility plant with a
`colored schematic view of the plant. The schematic may be on eight displays,
`with red lines indicating a sensor value that is out of normal range. By
`pressing a single, numbered button (there are no commands to learn or
`remember), the operator can get a more detailed View of the troubling
`component; with a second press, the operator can move down the tree
`structure to examine individual sensors or to reset valves and circuits.
`A basic strategy for this design is to eliminate the need for complex
`commands that need to be recalled only in once—a—year emergency condi-
`tions. The schematic of the plant facilitates problem solving by analogy,
`since the linkage between real-world high temperatures or low pressures
`and screen representations is so close.
`
`5.2.6 Office automation, databases, and directories
`
`A large part of the success and appeal of the Query-by-Example (Zloof, 1975)
`approach to data manipulation is due to the direct representation of the
`relations on the screen (Figure 5.8). The user moves a cursor through the
`
`Query:
`
`SKI-RESORTS |
`
`CITY
`
`STATE
`
`|
`
`LIFTS
`
`VERTTCAL
`
`Response:
`
`SKI-RESORTS
`
`Figure 5.8
`
`VERFACAL
`
`BELLEAYRE
`GORE
`HUNTER
`SKI WINDHAM
`WHLTEFACE
`
`HLGHMOUNT
`NORTH CREEK
`HUNTER
`WINDHAM
`WIMLINGTON
`
`Zloof’s Query-by-Example system shows users a relational-table skeleton and
`enables them to fill in literals (such as NY or 12 O O) and to specify fields to be
`printed (P . ). Users can also specify variables to link between relations. In this
`