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`recognize: recognizing an e-mail address ("fred@apple.com") or a URL ("http://www.apple.com") takes
`little more than a context-free grammar, if not merely a regular expression parser. A first step to bridging
`the document gap described above is then to construct a means of passing text from a user's document into
`a parser for matching against a collection of recognizers, each of which is looking for some meaningful type
`of information. These identifications imply simple interpretations of the bits of information that were
`found: URLs are found by the URL grammar, e-mail addresses are found by the e-mail address grammar,
`and so on. Then, actions appropriate to each kind of object can be offered, supporting users in their work
`on those objects and on the document as a whole.
`
`Our overall intent here -- to examine document content, identify likely user actions, and provide simple
`ways of selecting and executing those actions -- is not unlike that of the authors of other "intelligent" critic
`and advisory systems [e.g., 4, 6]. However, our work on structure detection differs from these systems in a
`number of ways:
`
`Syntactically-regular information structures, and the tasks that follow from them, can be found in
`almost any user domain. Hence, the total number of structures and tasks for which structure
`detection assistance would be helpful is too large for any single person or organization to try to
`satisfy. Therefore, we have paid special attention to the importance of allowing application
`developers and even end-users to define and extend the set of detectors and actions. This drove us
`to design a plug-in architecture for object recognizers and actions, as discussed in [7].
`We have remained open to large numbers of applications -- ideally, any application available on the
`Macintosh platform -- and have provided users with a consistent human interface across those
`applications.
`Viewing this work from an agent perspective, we have worked to keep the user well in control of the
`system's actions. This has called for a clear and explicit connection between the information that was
`found and the actions taken by users on that information. We have also kept the grain size of the
`actions relatively small, so that they would be easily understandable and, if need be, undoable.
`We wanted to keep our approach practical enough that it could ship as a commercial product, rather
`than simply being a research project.
`
`Our most successful instantiation of the idea of structure detection (thus far) has been Apple Data Detectors
`(ADD): a system extension for Mac OS 8 that is now commercially available(1). This first version of
`structure detection has been applied to the domain of Internet information management: finding structures
`like e-mail addresses, URLs, host names, and newsgroup names in user documents and automating actions
`on these structures, like creating a new e-mail message addressed to a discovered e-mail address or opening
`a web browser on a discovered URL. This capability has been implemented via Mac OS 8's contextual menus:
`Users select a region of text and activate the contextual menu by pressing the keyboard's Control key and
`the mouse button. This initiates the grammatical analysis of the selected text, and presents a hierarchical
`menu consisting of the structures found by the grammars and, for each of those structures, the actions that
`make sense for it. Users can examine all the discovered structures and their associated actions, and invoke
`whichever action they choose (Figure 1). More on the origin of Apple Data Detectors, its implementation,
`and how it made the transfer from research to product can be found in [7]. Some other related approaches
`to the structure detection question can also be found in [5] and [8].
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`Figure 1: The results of invoking Apple Data Detectors on a text selection.
`
`LiveDoc: Beyond Data Detectors
`
`Many of the goals we had set for shifting the model of documents from passive streams of characters to
`manipulable collections of meaningful objects were met quite nicely by Apple Data Detectors.
`Nevertheless, we saw other opportunities for structure detection, growing out of both limitations of this
`first system and opportunities for expanding its breadth and depth.
`
`Consider, first, the user interface to ADD. Users must select a range of text in a document, and invoke
`ADD through the contextual menu system. At that point, the selected text is sent to ADD's parser for
`analysis, which produces the menu of discovered structures and corresponding actions. This design has a
`number of implications on what kinds of interaction services can be offered to users:
`
`The basic premise of ADD is that it finds and selects manipulable bits of information for the user.
`However, in practice, the user must still find a structure that they would like to do something with,
`so that they can select, for analysis by ADD, a region of text containing that structure. It's true that
`ADD allows users to be inexact in selecting the region of text containing the structure of interest,
`since its grammars will find the desired structures in a stream of other, irrelevant characters.
`However, the tasks of discovering structures that might be operated upon and selecting the parts of
`the document around those structures are still imposed upon the user by ADD.
`It is not uncommon for useful structures to be nested within other useful structures. The URL
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`"http://www.apple.com/default.html" contains within it the host name "www.apple.com"; a similar
`situation holds for the host name embedded in an e-mail address. These multiple structures can
`make the contextual menu generated by a typical text selection quite long, forcing the user to choose
`between limiting the set of active detectors (which keeps the task of finding the desired structure in
`the contextual menu a manageable one) and having to search through a large number of detected
`structures in the contextual menu (which makes ADD's services applicable in the largest number of
`situations).
`Listing the detected structures in the contextual menu doesn't really make them manipulable,
`through such direct manipulation techniques as drag and drop.
`
`We encountered still other limitations resulting from our desire to increase the flexibility and power of
`ADD analyses. For instance, there really isn't any semantic interpretation of the discovered structures in
`ADD: Actions are associated with structures through a lookup table, not through any rich semantic
`representation of, for instance, what a URL is, what it might be used for, and what constraints exist on its
`use. As a result, the set of actions that can be offered to a user is fixed: it can neither include nor omit
`actions based on the semantics of the immediate interaction context. Further, since ADD's processing is
`tied to and activated by the contextual menu system, it must complete its analysis in the very short period
`of time in which users are willing to wait for a pop-up menu to appear (2) -- about half a second. This is
`typically enough time for ADD to run a set of precompiled grammars and build a menu from a lookup
`table. However, it's easy to imagine more complex analyses of documents that could not be completed in
`this short amount of time.
`
`Finally, we saw other opportunities for alternate analysis techniques, which could augment and extend the
`analysis model of ADD. ADD was built around a single parser, roughly equivalent to a context-free
`grammar (CFG); all structures found by ADD must be describable by a CFG. This is fine for simple
`structures such as phone numbers and e-mail addresses, but other more complex structures, such as a
`meeting announcement, are commonly found in a form not describable by a CFG, and so cannot be
`recognized by ADD. Some of these structures might be found by a more expressive grammar formalism,
`and others by recognizers that find structures by powerful but ad hoc analysis techniques instead of
`grammars. In addition, this textual grammar system cannot be easily extended to handle non-textual
`structures, such as images, drawings, circuit diagrams, or other kinds of visual information. All of these
`extensions indicate the need for a richer analysis model than was provided in ADD.
`
`As a result, we began a follow-on project to ADD, known as LiveDoc, which would carry the ideas of
`structure detection forward to another level. In LiveDoc, the structure detection process is run in the
`background on the visible document's text, whenever that document is presented or updated. The results
`of LiveDoc's analysis are then presented by visually highlighting the discovered structures with a patch of
`color around the structure. Holding down a function key places the document in "LiveDoc mode" and
`presents the highlighted structures; releasing the function key returns the document to normal. Pointing at
`a highlight and pressing the mouse button then displays the menu of actions that can be applied to the
`structure, as shown in Fig 2.
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`
`Figure 2: A sample interaction with LiveDoc. Note the highlighting of the discovered structures,
`the menu of actions available or the selected structure, and the nested highlighting of nested
`structures.
`
`Experientially, the design of LiveDoc draws on the Web in obvious ways: certain meaningful parts of a
`document are highlighted, and clicking on them causes certain actions to occur. LiveDoc differs from the
`Web, of course, in that we have substituted the automatic analysis of the document for the hand-authored
`links of web documents, so that any document in a LiveDoc-enabled application (more on this later) gains
`these characteristics. We are also able to assign more than one action to an object, something that lies
`outside the standard Web paradigm.
`
`LiveDoc's use of background processing and automatic highlighting of discovered structures offers other
`advantages. Structures relevant to the user are automatically presented to the user while a document is in
`LiveDoc mode; interesting structures need not be searched for and highlighted manually. The problem of
`overly-long contextual menus is avoided, since a menu shows only the actions relevant to the structure it is
`associated with. Similarly, nested structures can be handled by nesting the mouse-sensitive regions around
`the structure: clicking on the host name part of a URL can present a menu of actions relevant to host
`names, while clicking outside the host name region presents actions relevant to URLs. This is shown in
`Figure 2: the host name of the e-mail address and URL ("sci.org") is shown with a darker highlight than
`those of the e-mail address and URL themselves. Finally, note that the visual representation of these
`structures means that, given appropriate software support, they can be treated as directly accessible
`components of the interface: they can take part in drag and drop interactions, and in other forms of direct
`manipulation.
`
`What is described above is, of course, only a general design for LiveDoc. To understand how this design
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`can be implemented, it's necessary to look more closely at the system's architecture, and at its instantiation
`in several different working systems.
`
`The LiveDoc architecture: A General Description
`
`Architecturally, LiveDoc is built around the LiveDoc Manager (Figure 3). This component acts as an
`intermediary between the application making use of LiveDoc and the various internals of LiveDoc itself. In
`particular, the Analyzer System is made up of a set of detectors that analyze the content of the document
`passed to LiveDoc, a set of actions (typically, but not necessarily, implemented as AppleScripts) that carry
`out the various operations on the discovered structures, a table that specifies the mapping between
`detectors and actions, and an Analyzer Server that coordinates all these functions.
`
`Figure 3: The high-level LiveDoc architecture
`
`To make use of LiveDoc, applications must implement a small number of calls to the LiveDoc Manager,
`and a small number of callback handlers to respond to calls from the LiveDoc Manager. The most
`important of these handlers inform the LiveDoc Manager of changes to the content of the document
`window, perhaps by the user's adding or deleting content, or by the scrolling or resizing of the window. The
`receipt of these calls by the LiveDoc Manager signals the Analyzer Server to analyze the text provided by
`the calling application; this will typically be the text currently visible in the applications' front-most
`window. Once the analysis is completed and the structures in the text have been identified, the LiveDoc
`Manager constructs the various highlights for the discovered structures and their corresponding menus of
`actions. LiveDoc knows where these structures appear in the text passed to it -- an e-mail address might
`appear in characters 150 through 162 of the window's contents -- but it has no idea where in the window
`those characters physically appear, and, thus, where the highlights should appear: this is information held
`by the application, not by LiveDoc. Hence, LiveDoc must ask the application for the information about
`the structures it has found via a callback. Once this information is available, the highlights and their
`associated mouse-sensitive regions can be constructed.
`
`The LiveDoc Manager also controls the events that occur when the user presses the function key to enter
`LiveDoc mode, and when the mouse button is pressed while over a LiveDoc item. The LiveDoc Manager
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`updates the display to present the highlight information over the discovered structures when the function
`key is pressed, and to remove the highlights when the function key is released. The LiveDoc Manager also
`receives the notification that the mouse button has been pressed over a highlighted item; it then gets the
`list of actions appropriate to the selected item and presents a menu of them to the user. If one of these
`items is selected, the action corresponding to the selection is run, producing the desired action.
`
`Implementation 1: LiveSimpleText
`
`Our initial explorations of LiveDoc were implemented in Lisp, primarily to gain a rapid understanding of
`some of the implementation issues we would ultimately face and to explore various human interface ideas.
`However, we soon needed to turn our attention to a system-level API for LiveDoc that would be both
`efficient and not terribly burdensome to developers who would have to modify their applications to take
`advantage of LiveDoc.
`
`To test our first implementation of the LiveDoc API, we decided to modify a simple text editor
`application, SimpleText, to be a LiveDoc client. Although the API was designed as a Macintosh toolbox
`manager, so that it could be incorporated into existing applications without requiring developers to compile
`and link our code with theirs, this initial implementation did require linking portions of LiveDoc code with
`that of SimpleText. (This would be changed in later work where the LiveDoc manager was built as a shared
`library, allowing the LiveDoc Manager to be called by multiple LiveDoc clients.) We also needed a set of
`analyzers that could provide the document analysis services to the Analyzer Server. We decided to use the
`Apple Data Detectors context-free grammar engine, and to additionally implement a fast string search
`algorithm, as described by Aho and Corasick [1]; this analyzer rapidly finds all instances of strings in a
`document by comparing the text of the document to a set of dictionary entries. In doing so, we were able to
`test the multiple-analyzer part of the Analyzer Server and confirm its utility. As part of this test, we gave
`each analyzer its own interface affordance by varying the colors of the highlights: green for items found
`using a context free grammar (the Apple Data Detectors analysis engine) and pink for those items found
`using the string search.
`
`The background processing of LiveDoc raises the issue of the proper way in which to update the display
`when changes are made to the document. Whenever the text in the window is changed, by either the
`system or the user, LiveDoc must re-analyze the text, since recognizable structures may have appeared or
`disappeared. But when should this analysis be done? It makes little sense to analyze a document while the
`user is working, since each change will require a re-evaluation of the text. Our current implementation
`works with a timeout, which starts a re-analysis when the keyboard has been inactive for a short period of
`time (about one second) after a change to the display. In this way, LiveDoc does not analyze the document
`while the user is typing, but resumes when there is a pause in the user's actions. We have considered
`various algorithms that might minimize the cost of this analysis -- perhaps only analyzing the part of the
`window that had been scrolled, for instance -- but our current implementation reanalyzes the entire content
`region of a window when a change is detected.
`
`Overall, we believe there are some very compelling aspects of the LiveDoc interface as compared to Apple
`Data Detectors. As shown in Figure 2, LiveDoc displays its discovered structures in place, in the context in
`which they occur. It associates a menu of options with the object found where, in Apple Data Detectors, a
`single menu appears for all of the items found in the selection. Finally, LiveDoc works quietly in the
`background and displays the results of its analysis on demand, rather than performing the analysis on
`demand. Having said that, there are some user interface issues that we have not explicitly evaluated as part
`of this work, and that would benefit from further study. The use of highlighting is one of these: adding the
`notion of a sometimes-visible layer to the front of the display is a considerable change to the graphical
`interface, and, while others have pursued similar uses of translucency (e.g., [2]), its overall utility and
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`understandability is worthy of study.
`
`Similarly, the use of increasing degrees of saturation of the highlights should be examined: are these
`differences clear enough to be discernible, and do they require a precision in mouse control that users both
`possess and are willing to apply? Note also that this issue of manual and visual dexterity is complicated by
`the fact that using a function key as the means of entering and leaving LiveDoc mode means that we have
`made the interface a two-handed one: one for the function key and one for the mouse. This (3) raises
`disability and accessibility issues, and more general ease-of-use issues as well. Finally, we should note the
`current invisibility of the background document processing, and the need for the status of this processing
`to be visible to the user: How does a user know when the analysis is completed, and all the structures that
`can be discovered have been discovered? Some equivalent to a progress indicator bar, which reports how
`far along the analysis is, might be a useful addition. This may not be a problem when and if processors
`become fast enough to do these analyses very quickly, but we are hesitant to rely on sheer processor speed
`as the solution to what is really an interface design problem (especially since faster processors will most
`likely encourage developers to design more sophisticated, and probably more time-expensive, analyses).
`
`Dealing with Static-ness: APIs and Plug-Ins
`
`A second aspect of this project addressed some deeper questions about the LiveDoc architecture: the need
`for an API to the LiveDoc Manager (and whether it can be eliminated), the inflexibility of the analysis
`architecture, and the opportunities raised by a greater degree of semantic representation about the
`discovered structures.
`
`LiveSimpleText worked well as a prototype, but we were still concerned about requiring developers to
`change their applications to gain access to LiveDoc's capabilities. We know from experience that
`developers are justifiably reluctant to change their applications just to implement a new feature provided
`by the toolbox, so we experimented with some alternatives that we hoped would ease this restriction.
`
`Our first approach was to modify TextEdit, a set of Macintosh toolbox routines that provide an application
`with minimal text editing and display capabilities. Although TextEdit has a limit of 32,000 characters, too
`small for the needs of most modern word processing applications, most application dialog boxes that have
`editable fields use TextEdit, and some applications also use TextEdit for their editors or text display fields.
`If we could "trap" the calls from an application to TextEdit and pass them through LiveDoc, we could
`provide LiveDoc capabilities to any application that uses TextEdit, without requiring any modification to
`the application. Hence, we built a Macintosh system component that trapped and patched all the TextEdit
`calls, and then tested this with a variety of applications. In doing this, we discovered that most applications
`that use TextEdit take some programming shortcuts that kept our patches from working properly. We did
`however, find that the e-mail client Eudora used TextEdit appropriately, and we were able to provide
`LiveDoc functionality to an unmodified version of Eudora through this approach. Unfortunately, before we
`could deploy what we called "EudoraLive", Eudora underwent an architectural change in moving from
`Eudora 2.0 to Eudora 3.0, and no longer used TextEdit.
`
`A second promising approach was to use the framework of OpenDoc (4) as a vehicle for LiveDoc. At the
`time we undertook this work, OpenDoc parts and part editors were just beginning to appear, and it
`appeared that we could leverage some of OpenDoc's extensibility to implement LiveDoc as a plug-in to the
`OpenDoc architecture, so that OpenDoc text parts could acquire LiveDoc behavior without any source
`code modification. This was promising, but we ultimately discovered that it still was not possible to get
`information about the way in which text was rendered without the LiveDoc Manager consulting the
`application.
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`These attempts to build an API-less LiveDoc ultimately failed (as did other attempts not discussed here,
`which worked with other parts of the Macintosh architecture. Nevertheless, we are still optimistic about
`the possibility of such approaches to system extension, for LiveDoc as well as other kinds of extensions. In
`retrospect, it seems that what we were trying to do was to graft an object-oriented software model onto a
`platform that was not object-oriented. OpenDoc had the right sense of object-orientation, but its design
`happened to not expose certain aspects of the system that LiveDoc required. As operating systems
`continue to evolve in an object-oriented direction, we may find that the kinds of extensions we sought
`become the norm, rather than the exception.
`
`Futures: Extensibility and Semantics
`
`We tried to design LiveDoc's architecture to be as open as possible. In doing so, when faced with a tradeoff
`between performance and extensibility, we generally leaned towards extensibility. As implemented in the
`systems described here, there are two aspects to extensibility in LiveDoc: the analyzers and the kinds of
`structures they can discover, and the actions that can be taken on those structures. While the analyzers we
`built operated on lexical data, much could be done by applying the LiveDoc model to graphical information
`or multi-media content. We can easily envision analyzers that recognize features in drawings and pictures,
`or analyzers that "listen" for relevant structures in streaming audio or video. While we tried to be agnostic
`about these data types in the design of the LiveDoc architecture, it is inevitable that some pieces of the
`API would have to be rethought if such detectors became available.
`
`The behaviors associated with actions should also be flexible and extensible, and work more closely with
`the document structure than they do at present. Our initial implementation of LiveDoc as LiveSimpleText
`assumed that actions would be handled by external applications, such as a Web browser presenting the
`page pointed to by a URL. However, other styles of interaction exist: Imagine a detector that finds the
`formula of an organic molecule in a document, and an action that presents a three-dimensional rendering of
`that molecule within the context of the document itself, rather than in a separate application. Our API
`allows for such behavior, but more sophisticated models of documents are needed to pursue these
`possibilities in detail.
`
`Finally, LiveDoc itself knows virtually nothing of the real meaning of the items that it identifies. At best,
`LiveDoc might know that an object is a telephone number or a company name, but even those terms are
`simply labels assigned by the authors of the grammars, and have no extrinsic meaning. Moreover, there is
`no way to describe a composition of discovered objects in terms of meaningful relationships among them:
`all that the LiveDoc analysis produces is a list of discovered objects with a simple type identification. It's
`possible to discover relatively complex objects with the CFG model -- a grammar might describe a
`"meeting" as a combination of a date, two times (presumably the starting and ending times of the meeting)
`and the name of a conference room -- but there are still no semantics associated with this "meeting" object
`or any of its components. Hence, as noted earlier, the actions associated with a structure are static, rather
`than dynamically reflecting the nature of the user's interaction context. Further, we have done nothing of
`significance with the idea of making these objects directly manipulable; they are still only targets for a
`"mouse-down" interaction. These questions of direct manipulation and the marriage of syntax with
`semantics are important ones; we consider them in more detail in our discussion of "drop zones" [3].
`
`Summary
`
`LiveDoc was a useful experiment, in several ways. It provided a testbed for exploring issues in system
`architecture and human interface, and how the two can -- indeed, must -- work together to produce a
`useful interaction technique. In addition, LiveDoc played a significant role in our productizing the general
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`notion of structure detection via Apple Data Detectors. Having LiveDoc as a demo tool showed that there
`was a long-term technology stream at the heart of the simple notion of structure detection. The highly
`visual nature of the LiveDoc interface also was a very effective marketing tool: it caught the attention of
`the product-side people who saw it, and helped open the doors to consideration and adoption of the basic
`technology.
`
`In any case, the value of the approach demonstrated by LiveDoc seems clear. More and more applications
`are providing some ability to recognize domain-relevant structures and allow users to execute relevant
`actions on them via a mouse click. Many e-mail clients automatically recognize e-mail addresses and URLs,
`as do some newsgroup readers and even some general-purpose document editors. This is fine with us: their
`domain-specific use of these techniques confirms the relevance of the general idea, and argues for a
`broader architectural approach to that general idea. We hope and expect that applications and the system
`software beneath them will continue to move in the direction outlined by LiveDoc: away from a lifeless
`stream of characters, and toward a collection of interrelated, meaningful, and manipulable objects. Having
`a clear system architecture and a well-conceived human interface, like that described here, will be essential
`to the success of this vision of documents, and this style of interacting with them.
`
`References
`
`1. Aho, A. V., & Corasick, M. J. (1975). Efficient string matching: An aid to bibliographic search.
`Communications of the ACM, 18(6), pp. 333-340.
`
`2. Bier, E. A., Stone, M. C., Fishkin, K., Buxton, W., & Baudel, T. (1994). A taxonomy of see-through
`tools. Proceedings of CHI '94, pp. 358-364. New York: ACM Press.
`
`3. Bonura, T., & Miller, J. R. (1998). Drop Zones: An extension to LiveDoc. SIGCHI Bulletin, this volume.
`
`4. Cypher, A. EAGER: Programming repetitive tasks by example. (1991). Proc. CHI '91, pp. 33-39. New
`York: ACM Press
`
`5. Dey, A. K., Abowd, G. D., & Wood, A. (1998). CyberDesk: A Framework for Providing Self-Integrating
`Context-Aware Services. Proceedings of Intelligent User Interfaces '98. New York: ACM Press.
`
`6. Fischer, G., Lemke, A. C., Mastaglio, T., & Morch, A. (1991). Critics: An Emerging Approach to
`Knowledge-Based Human Computer Interaction. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 35(5), pp. 695-
`721.
`
`7. Nardi, B. A., Miller, J. R., & Wright, D. J. (1998). Collaborative, programmable intelligent agents.
`Communications of the ACM, Vol. 41 No. 3, March 1998.
`
`8. Pandit, M. & Kalbag, S. (1997). The selection recognition agent: Instant access to relevant information
`and operations. Proc. Intelligent User Interfaces '97. New York: ACM Press.
`
`Acknowledgments
`
`We would like to acknowledge the contributions of Bruce Horn who was instrumental in the design of the
`LiveDoc API and implementation of LiveSimpleText. We also thank Laile DiSilvestro for her contributions
`to the OpenDoc work and implementing the TextEdit patches for EudoraLive.
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`SIGCHI Bulletin Vol.30 No.2, April 1998: Drop Zones
`
`Issue Article
`
`Vol.30 No.2, April 1998
`
`Article
`
`Issue
`
`Drop Zones
`An Extension to LiveDoc
`Thomas Bonura and James R. Miller
`
`Introduction
`Drop Zones
`Semantics and Representation
`Composing Terms
`Communicating with Agents
`Conclusion
`References
`About the Authors
`Authors' Addresses
`
`Introduction
`
`LiveDoc [6] is an extension to the Macintosh user experience that allows documents to reveal structured
`information in such a way that it can be readily identified and used to achieve specific actions. Various
`kinds of recognizers, including context-free grammars, are used to describe the structures to be found;
`these structures can be made up of either a single lexical term (either a variable structure like a phone
`number, or a collection of static strings, like company names) or multiple terms (for instance, a meeting can
`be defined as a combination of date, time, and venue structures). Small pieces of code can then be
`associated with each structure to instruct applications to carry out specific user actions on the discovered
`structures -- perhaps to tell a telephony application to "Dial this phone number." These actions can then be
`offered to users by visually highlighting the discovered structures and attaching pop-up menus to the
`highlights. (See also [7] for an alternate interface formalism implementing the same notion of structure
`detection.)
`
`This system can be very effective when working with structures that are simple and easy to recognize.
`How