Hypertext: An Introduction
`and Survey
`
`- -
`
`Jeff Conklin
`Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corp.
`
`ost modem computer sys-
`tems share a foundation
`which is built of directories
`containing files. The files consist of text
`which is composed of characters. The text
`that is stored within this hierarchy is linear.
`For much of our current way of doing
`business, this linear organization is suffi-
`cient. However, for more and more appli-
`cations, a linear organization is not
`adequate. For example, the documenta-
`tion of a computer program* is usually
`either squeezed into the margins of the
`program, in which case it is generally too
`terse to be useful, or it is interleaved with
`the text of the program, a practice which
`breaks up the flow of both program and
`documentation.
`As workstations grow cheaper, more
`powerful, and more available, new possi-
`bilities emerge for extending the tradi-
`tional notion of "flat"
`text files by
`allowing more complex organizations of
`the material. Mechanisms are being
`devised which allow direct machine-
`supported references from one textual
`chunk to another; new interfaces provide
`the usq with the ability to interact directly
`with these chunks and to establish new
`relationships between them. These exten-
`sions of the traditional text fall under the
`general category of hypertext (also known
`as nonlinear text). Ted Nelson, one of the
`
`*Documentation is the unexecutable English text
`which explains the logic of the program which it
`accompanies.
`
`Hypertext systems
`feature machine-
`supported links-both
`within and between
`documents--that open
`exciting new
`possibilities for using
`the computer as a
`communication and
`thinking tool.
`
`pioneers of hypertext, once defined it as "a
`combination of natural language text with
`the computer's capacity for interactive
`branching, or dynamic display . . . of a
`nonlinear text. . . which cannot be printed
`conveniently on a conventional page. " '
`This article is a survey of existing hyper-
`text systems, their applications, and their
`design. It is both an introduction to mhe
`world of hypertext and, at a deeper cut, a
`survey of some of the most important
`
`design issues that go into fashioning a
`hypertext environment.
`The concept of hypertext is quite sim-
`ple: Windows on the screen are associated
`with objects in a database, and links are
`provided between these objects, both
`graphically (as labelled tokens) and in the
`database (as pointers). (See Figure 1 .)
`But this simple idea is creating much
`excitement. Several universities have
`created laboratories for research on hyper-
`text, many articles have been written about
`the concept just within the last year, and
`the Srnithsonian Institute has created a
`demonstration laboratory to develop and
`display hypertext technologies. What is all
`the fuss about? Why are some people will-
`ing to make extravagant claims for hyper-
`text, calling it "idea processing" and "the
`basis for global scientific literature"?
`In this article I will attempt to get at the
`essence of hypertext. I will discuss its
`advantages and disadvantages. I will show
`that this new technology opens some very
`exciting possibilities, particularly for new
`uses of the computer as a communication
`and thinking tool. However, the reader
`who has not used hypertext should expect
`that at best he will gain a perception of
`hypertext as a collection of interesting fea-
`tures. Just as a description of electronic
`spreadsheets will not get across the real ele-
`gance of that tool, this article can only hint
`at the potentials of hypertext. In fact, one
`must work in current hypertext environ-
`ments for a while for the collection of fea-
`
`September 198;
`
`0018-9162/87/~17SO1.00 01987 IEEE
`
`17
`
`001
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

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`-
`- - I hypertext, window systems have no single
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`that is common to many hypertext systems
`is the heavy use of windows that have a
`' one-to-one correspondence with nodes in
`the database. I consider this feature to be
`1
`of secondary importance.
`One way to delimit hypertext is to point
`out what it is not. Briefly, several systems
`B
`have some of the attributes of hypertext
`0 but do not qualify. Window systems fall
`into this category; while, window systems
`do have some of the interface functional-
`ity, and therefore some of the "feel" of
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`Display screen
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`Hypertext database
`
`underlying database, and therefore lack
`the database aspect of hypertext. File sys-
`tems also do not qualify as hypertext; one
`could claim that a file system is a database,
`and that one moves among nodes (files) by
`simply invoking an editor with their
`names. However, to qualify as hypertext,
`a system must use a more sophisticated
`notion of links and must provide more
`machine support for its links than merely
`typing file names after a text editor
`prompt. Similarly, most outline proces-
`sors (such as ThinkTank) do not qualify.
`They provide little or no support for refer-
`ences between outline entries, although
`their integrated hierarchical d a t a b a n d
`interface do approximate hy-pertext better
`than the other systems that I have men-
`tioned. Text formatting systems (such as
`Troff and Scribe) do not qualify. They
`allow a tree of text fragments in separate
`files to be gathered into one large docu-
`ment; however, this structure is hierarchi-
`cal and provides no interface for on-line
`navigation within the (essentially linear)
`document. Similarly, database manage-
`Figure 1. The correspondence between windows and Ynks in the display, and nodes ment systems (DBMSs) have links of var-
`and links in the btabnse. In this example, each node in the hgaertext database i s
`ious kinds (for example, relational and
`displayed in a separate whdow on the screen when requested. The Ink named "b"
`object-oriented links), but lack the single
`in window A has beem activated by 8 pointing device, causing a new window named
`coherent interface to the database which
`"B" to be created oa the sereen und f i e d with the text f r ~ m node B in the data-
`is the hallmark of hypertext.
`base. (Generally, links can have names that are different from the name of the
`As videodisc technology comes of age,
`there is growing interest in the extension of
`node they point to.)
`hypertext to the more general concept of
`hypermedia, in which the elements which
`are networked together can be text,
`graphics, digitized speech, audio record-
`ings, pictures, animation, film clips, and
`presumably tastes, odors, and tactile sen-
`sations. At this point, little has been done
`tures to coalesce into a useful tool.
`ments)as theessentid fatweof hypertext
`to explore the design and engineering
`One problem with identifying the essen-
`systems and treats other aspects as exten-
`issues of these additional modalities,
`tial aspects of hypertext is that the term
`sions of this basic concept. *It is this link-
`ing capability which allows a nonlinear although many of the high-level design
`"hypertext" has beenusedquitelooselyin
`issues are likely to be shared with hyper-
`the past 20 years for many different collec- organization of text. An additional feature
`tions of features. Such tools as window
`text. Therefore, this survey will primarily
`systems, electronic mail, and telecon-
`of address the more conservative text-based
`to mt,fish the
`*While this article =ks
`ferencing share features with hypertext. machine-supportd links 83 the primary criterion of
`systems.
`~
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` his article focuses on machine-supported
`links (both within and between docu- which have a weaker notion OP links.
`A glimpse of using hypertext. It is use-
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`002
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`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

`
`f u l t o h a v e a ~ d t h e d ~ o f
`using a hypertext system, paaicnkuly if
`you have m e r seen one. Below is a list of
`the featum of a somewhat idealized
`hypestext system. Some existing systems
`have more features than these, and some
`have fewer or different ones.
`The &atabase is a nemork of textual
`(and perhaps graphical) nodes which can
`bethoughtofaaltindof hypgnbocmrment.
`* W " ~ s o n t h e s c r e e n ~ ~ t o
`nodes i the datsbm on a one-to-one
`basis, and each has a name or title which
`is always &played in t k windnw. How-
`ever, only a d number of nodes are
`ewer''0pcn" (aswh4ows)anthesaeenat
`the same the.
`Standard window system gpcmibns
`are supported: Windows can be reposi-
`tioned, redzed* closed, and put aside as
`small window icons. The pesittm and size
`of a window or icon (and perhaps also its
`color and shape) arecues to ranembering
`theconMntaof tlmvhdow. Closhgawin-
`d o w ~ ~ w i n d o w
`t@ &sappew after
`anychangesthat~beannsadc~~ved
`to the datahe it&.. Clcking with the
`mouse on the icon of a dosed window
`causes the WMOW
`to open instantly.
`Windows cen contain any number of
`llnk hns* WE& repme& pointers to
`other nades in the database. The link icon
`colasins a short texturl field which sug-
`gstst$e!eontona of the node it point9 to.
`Clicking on a link Icon with the mouse
`cauw the system to find the referend
`node &to izmmdiakly apen a new win-
`dow for it a n R h e ~ .
`* The user can &y
`create new nodes
`and new Wa to new nodes ( f a annota-
`tion, comment, daboration, etc.) or to.
`existing nodes (for estabbhhg new am-
`neetiom).
`The dmabase
`be browsed in thee
`ways: (1) by following links and opening
`windows wcxwsivelyto sraminztheir coa-
`tents, (2) by wmcw the network (or part
`of it) -for some string,** keyword, or
`attribute vatue, and (3) by navisating
`around the Byperdocum~llt wing a
`browmthat dioptap the netvmkgraphi-
`cally. 'We use am select whether the
`nodes and links display their h W or not.
`The browm is an important component
`
`t h w
`* N a t e t h r t l m ~ a r c d f f c r i b i n g t w o ~ ~ e ~ o f ~
`tbat tunctioo as placaboders for windows that have
`ban tempmuikyput asidc, and those within windows
`thatreprcstMlintstootbernodes.
`
`* * & ~ m ~ o f ~ k t i e B D d m g n a i c c h a r s f -
`oaPr of iuly length, for example ''-
`or
`"*oen4i0'
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`how r Bypertgat h o w m provides a dinet
`fn t!hld llhstmtian, the
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`Using a browser can be likened to using
`visual and tactile cues when looking for a
`certain page in a book. Sometime we
`r e m e a t b a t b e g ~ a l w a y ~ ~ 1 0 0 k e j
`and about haw far it was though the
`d
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`book, although we don't r
`the page
`number or even which keyword terms
`would help us find it by using the &dex or
`WIs of contat& Thebrowser display
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`bebesimilarfyscaaae8&malwttenthe I
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`003
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

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`user has forgotten all but the appearance
`or location of a node.
`
`Hypertext
`implementations
`
`The history of hypertext is rich and var-
`ied because hypertext is not so much a new
`idea as an evolving conception of the pos-
`sible applications of the computer. Many
`people have contributed to the idea, and
`each of them seems to have had something
`different in mind. In this section, I will
`review these theorists and their ideas in an
`effort to present a historical perspective as
`well as to sketch some of the hypertext
`applications that have been devised to
`date. I do not describe the individual sys-
`tems and ideas reviewed here in any detail.
`For more detailed information, the reader
`is invited to consult the literature directly.
`One kind of manual hypertext is the tra-
`ditional use of 3 x 5 index cards for note
`taking. Note cards are often referenced to
`each other, as well as arranged hierarchi-
`cally (for example, in a shoebox or in
`rubber-banded bundles). A particular
`advantage of note cards is that their small
`size modularizes the notes into small
`chunks. The user can easily reorganize a
`set of cards when new information sug-
`gests a restructuring of the notes. Of
`course, a problem with note cards is that
`the user can have difficulty finding a spe-
`cific card if he has many of them.
`Another kind of manual hypertext is the
`reference book, exemplified by the dic-
`tionary and the encyclopedia. In the sense
`that each of these can be viewed as a graph
`of textual nodes joined by referential links,
`they are very old forms of hypertext. As
`one reads an article or definition, explicit
`references to related items indicate where
`to get more information about those items.
`The majority of people's transactions with
`a dictionary make use of the linear (alpha-
`betic) ordering of its elements (definitions)
`for accessing a desired element. An ency-
`clopedia, on the other hand, can best be
`used to explore the local nodes in the "net-
`work," once one has found the desired
`entry through the alphabetic index.
`There are also many documents in
`which references to other parts of the
`document, or to other documents, consti-
`tute a major portion of the work. Both the
`Talmud, with its heavy use of annotations
`and nested commentary, and Aristotle's
`writings, with their reliance on references
`to other sources, are ancient prototypes of
`
`hypertextual representation.
`But if one insists, as most modern
`proponents of hypertext do, that naviga-
`tion through hypertextual space must be
`computer-supported in order to qualify as
`true hypertext, then the field is narrowed
`considerably, .and the history likewise
`shortened.
`In some ways, the people who first
`described hypertext-Bush, Engelbart,
`Nelson-all had the same vision for hyper-
`text as a path to ultimate humancomputer
`interaction, a vision which is still alive
`today among hypertext researchers. Thus
`the historical review below stresses the
`early development of ideas about hyper-
`text as much as the more contemporary
`implementation efforts.
`Because of the difficulty of precisely
`classifying hypertext systems according to
`their features, my description willlist sys-
`tems according to application. There are
`four broad application areas for which
`hypertext systems have been developed:
`macro literary systems: the study of
`technologies to support large on-line
`libraries in which interdocument links
`are machine-supported (that is, all
`publishing, reading, collaboration,
`and criticism takes place within the
`network);
`problem exploration tools: tools to
`support early unstructured thinking
`on a problem when many discon-
`nected ideas come to mind (for exam-
`ple, during early authoring and
`outlining, problem solving, and pro-
`gramming and design);
`browsingsystems: systems similar to
`macro literary systems, but smaller in
`scale (for teaching, reference, and
`public information, where ease of use
`is crucial);
`general hypertext technology: general
`purpose systems designed to allow
`experimentation with a range of
`hypertext applications (for reading,
`writing, collaboration, etc.)
`These categories are somewhat infor-
`mal. Often the single application to which
`a system has been applied to date deter-
`mines which category it is described in.
`Bear in mind that some of the systems
`mentioned below are full-scale environ-
`ments, while others are stifl only concep-
`tual sketches. Some systems have focused
`more on the development of the front end
`
`(the user interface aspects), while others
`have focused on the database issues of the
`back end (the database server). Table 1
`identifies various features of the different
`hypertext systems which have been imple-
`mented.
`
`Macro literary system. The earliest
`visions of hypertext focus on the integra-
`tion of colossal volumes of information to
`make them readily accessible via a simple
`and consistent interface. The whole net-
`work publishing system constitutes a
`dynamic corpus to be enriched by readers
`without defacing the original documents;
`thus, the difference between authors and
`readers is diminished. The advent of the
`computer has brought this vision closer to
`reality, but it has also revealed the
`monumental problems inherent in this
`application area.
`
`Bush 'sMemex. Vannevar Bush, Presi-
`dent Roosevelt's Science Advisor, is
`credited with fist describing hypertext in
`his 1945 article "As We May ~hink,"'in
`which he calls for a major postwar effort
`to mechanize the scientific literature sys-
`tem. In the article, he introduces a machine
`for browsing and making notes in an
`extensive onJine text and graphics system.
`This mernex contained a very iarge library
`as well as personal notes, photographs,
`and sketches. It had several screens and a
`facility for establishing a labelled link
`between any two points in the entire
`library. Although the article is remarkably
`foresightful, Bush did not anticipate the
`power of the digital computer; thus his
`memex uses microfilm and photocells to
`do its magic. But Bush did anticipate the
`information explosion and was motivated
`in developing his ideas by the need to sup-
`port more natural forms of indexing and
`retrieval:
`The human mind . . . operates by associa-
`tion. Man cannot hape fully to duplicate this
`mental process artificially, but he certainly
`ought to be able to learn from it. Onecannot
`hope to equal the speed and flexibility with
`which the mind follows an associative trail,
`but it should be possible to beat the mind
`decisively in regard to the permanence and
`clarity of the items resurrected from
`storage.*
`Bush described the essential feature of
`the memex as the ability to tie two items
`together. The mechanism is complex, but
`clever. The user has two documents that he
`wishes to join into a trail he is building,
`each document in its own viewer; he taps
`in the name of the link, and that n m e
`appears in a code space at the bottom of
`
`004
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

`
`Table 1. Hypertext systems and their features.
`
`Hierarchy Graph- Link Attri- Paths Ver-
`based Types butes
`sions
`
`Proced- Keyword Text
`ural
`o r
`Editor
`Attach- String
`ment
`Search
`Yes
`Yes
`
`Emacs
`
`Con- Pictures Graphical
`current o r
`Browser
`Multi- Graphics
`users
`N o
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`N o
`
`N o
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`N o
`
`N o
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Zmacs
`
`Emacs
`
`A basic
`text
`editor
`
`Custom
`
`Text /
`graph.
`WYSIWYG
`
`N o
`
`N o
`
`N o
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Smalltalk- Yes
`80 editor
`
`Custom
`
`Interlisp
`
`Various
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Hypertext
`Systems
`Boxer
`
`C R E F
`
`Emacs I N F O
`
`IBIS
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`N o
`
`Yes
`
`F i e d ' N o l N o N o
`
`Yes N o N o By link N o
`
`N o N o N o N o
`
`N o
`
`Yes N o N o By link N o
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`N o
`
`Intermedia
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes Yes No2 NO
`
`KMS
`
`Multiple Yes
`
`F i e d No No' Yes
`
`No2
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Neptune
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes Yes No
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`NLS/Augment
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes Yes Yes Yes
`
`Notecards
`
`Multiple Yes
`
`Yes Nodes No
`
`Outline Processors Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Unix
`file sys.
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Unix/
`grep
`
`SunView
`text ed.
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Yes No
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`None
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`PlaneText
`
`Symbolics
`Document
`Examiner
`
`SYNVIEW
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`line ed./
`Unix
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Multiple Yes
`
`Yes Yes Yes No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Keyword Any
`
`No2
`
`A basic
`text editor
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`Textnet
`
`Hyperties
`
`WE
`
`Xanadu
`
`ZOG
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Fixed No2 No2
`
`No2
`
`No
`
`Smalltalk- No2
`80 editor
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Yes Yes Yes Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`Any
`
`No
`
`Full text Spec. Pur. Yes
`
`Yes
`
`No
`
`No
`
`No
`
`' Can be user programmed.
`Planned for next version.
`
`In this table, each column represents one possible feature or ability that a hypertext system can provide. The negative or affirmative entries in the
`table indicate whether the corresponding hypertext system meets the standard criteria for a specified feature. These criteria are listed below.
`
`Hierarchy: Is there specific support for hierarchical structures?
`Graph-based: Does the system support nonhierarchical (cross-reference) links?
`Link types: Can links have types?
`Attributes: Can user-designated attribute/value pairs be associated with nodes or links?
`Paths: Can many links be strung together into a single persistent object?
`Versions: Can nodes or links have more than a single version?
`Procedural attachment: Can arbitrary executable procedures be attached to events (such as mousing) at nodes or links?
`String search: Can the hyperdocument be searched for strings (including keywords)?
`Text editor: What editor is used to create and modify the contents of nodes?
`Concurrent multiusers: Can several users edit the hyperdocument at the same time?
`Pictures or graphics: Is some form of pictorial or graphical information supported in addition to text?
`Graphics browser: Is there a browser which graphically presents the nodes and links in the hyperdocument?
`
`September 1987
`
`005
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

`
`as NLS (DM L b Eyaem) by the Augmen-
`ted Human Intellect Research Center at
`SRI. NLS was designed as an expimm-
`tal tool on which the research group &el+
`oped a ~ygtem that would be 'kkquato* to
`all of their work needs, by
`p h d w in computer store all of our spedfi-
`cations, plans, dEsigaf,
`dawnen-
`W n , q m s , maho9, b,bfWaiphy md
`refemwe notes, etc., and & ' i all of our
`scratch work, plo-
`dd-,
`dobuk-
`ging, etc., aad a g d doat of our intercom-
`munication. via the collsoles.'
`These consoles were very ~)p&bthtcd
`by the standards of the day and inchded
`television images and a variety of input
`devices, including one of Engelbrut's best
`known inventions, the mouse. *
`Files in MLS were structured into a hier-
`I each of which bore an identirkr of its h e 1
`I archy of segments**
`stutmmfs,
`within the fide. For q 1 e ,
` a document
`"1,'. " la,?' "lag,"
`bligbthm-b
`i "la2," "lb," etc,, #ough these i&N-
`fiers did not need to be displayed. Any
`
`I number of reference links c0Ut.d bestab-
`
`I
`
`.
`
`
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`*:a&
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`*
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`Figure 3. Engelhart at the NLS/Augment workstation. Note the chord key set
`under Engelbart's left hand. The chord key set is optional for Augment. It is a
`remarkable accelerator for character-driven commands and mouse-select screen
`operands.
`'
`.-$
`, i., ,, , ;'&
`LC 1 .
`.
`
`Wed between statements within f b and
`between fdes, Note that this is a structure
`which is primarily hierarchical, but which
`allows nonhierarchical links as
`The
`importance of supporting; both k&&
`of
`structures is a point to which I wiu wtwn
`later. ne sy%tem
`eVeral ways to
`traverse the statements in files.
`systems,
`NLS, like other early h-
`' .
`, . '
`a database of
`emphasized three -cis:
`-
`?.
`x;
`nonlinear text, viewfilters which selected
`each viewer; out of view, the codespaceis ' :.i : Lb this stage, the symbols with which the which strumed the display
`information from thb datdme, id -8
`infor-
`also filled with a photoc&-readable dat : , "human
`t'epresents the concepts he is manip-
`ulating can be mmged b e h e his eyes, mation for the terminal. The availability
`that names
`of workstations with high resolution &s-
`document and
`b v e d , stored, recalled, operated upon
`the current position in that document. , ., a m r a n g t~ extremdy mmpla mles-all
`in
`Thereafter, when one of these items is h ' . very rapid responseto a ~ a m o u n t
`plays bas shifted the emphasis to more
`of
`IIRqhiuidepictiOflS of
`aPd
`by the brman- by
`' information M P N ~ ~
`view, the other can be instantly recalled
`networks, such as using one window for
`means of special cooperatiw ~
`~
`~
`~
`o
`c
`we wt now & node.
`merely by tapping a button w o w the COP
`devices. I* wt of
`@&a#&
`&a imagine, 'iliis ko8d Ti6 -a donrtf,uW(I &H
`r e s p ~ ~ d t n g ~ ~ .
`
`d&&g @&g& f& & f&
`f&&
`structwee: one cou~gd&p the
`many technological breakthroughs would
`which individuals could communicate rapidly
`t w t h )
`to a three-dimensional
`itnd easiiy, COU-
`be needed to make his memex practical,
`color display with w ~ c h mady sophisti- of hierarchy & l a d , truncate the num-
`but he
`a
`that it
`. . .' h r of items diqlayed at any leyel, and
`ugd imaga mdd b.
`achievement worthy of major expenditure.
`cusW&@d filt~rs {&I,$ "&h-&d
`d w 1-9
`His proposed system, W-LAMP
`<I
`that displaged
`Engelbart 's NLS/Augmmt. Just less
`(Human using Languale, Artifm, and ody nam mcb iP*fi& OsaOsa
`than two decades Iata Douglas Engelbart, Methodology, in rhWl he is Tnwd),
`taR. NU
`btdn&&
`Of
`included the human user as an essential ek-
`at Stanford Research Institute, was
`influenced by Bush'sideas. In 1963, Engel- ment: The user and the cmppuwr were
`bart wrote "A Conceptual Framework for dynamically changing eonip-ts
`in a
`the Augmentation of Man's I n t e l ~ . " 3 symbiosis which had the effeci of
`Engelbart envisioned that computers
`"amplifying"' thena&eiaeIIigw of the
`would usher in a new stageof human evo- user. This is still a corsunon dsion monk
`C'i: . lution, characterized by "automated , yel losers of hypxtexf w v .
`' Pi* '$k$ Iafer, in 1968, B ~ 1 b a r t 3 s *5egments were i i m w t o ~ eh~r-r
`*I ' external symbol manipulation":
`5 4 5 ..
`in fena
`' "i*'
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`comqylt
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`
`006
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

`
`multiperson distributed conferenc-
`ing/editing.
`NLS has evolved over the years. It is
`now called Augment (or NLSIAugment)
`and is marketed as a commercial netwnrk
`system by McDonnell Douglas. In
`d e v e l o p i n g N L S , t h e ~ i h a s ~ a n
`creating a consistent environment for
`"knowledge workers" (that is, office
`automatian for ssftware m c e r s ) . l h
`system now includes many forms of
`computer-supported communicationi
`both asynchronous (email with links toall
`documents, journaling of ideas and
`exchanges, bulletin boards, etc.) and syn-
`chronous (several termhats sharing the
`same display, teleconferencing,
`includes facilities for document
`tion and control, mganhtional
`ject information management, a
`software engineering. (See Figures 3
`4.)
`
`u 1 w t : Ill J W S M I L F 1 U
`
`I
`
`---*--------------------
`
`". . . &WENT'S A&dressi~s and .links,
`described i n (a-6.1*6 :ehtzg*>. . ."
`
`.................,*..* '....
`UDR'$SsIIIC mP WUIIM M I l I A L 8
`
`U T h m is . constttsat tat oP
`
`6B WLICIT SThTSlMI ADDllEBES
`6C m m
`6D I1EI#1IVP-&bD]I~
`6E RIBEDDH) C I T M l U &I=
`6F TWT AIU
`II)1IRmIs
`
`Aklson's Xclnadu Project. During
`Engelbart's development of Augment,
`another hypertext visionary, Ted Nelson,
`was developing his own ideas about aug-
`mentation, but with an emphasis on creat-
`ing a unified literary environment on a
`global scale. Nelson coined the term
`"hypertext. " His thinicing and writing are
`fM *d@ws. wbdow 1 (W-1) bas a WWF
`the most extravagant of any of the early FbPm 4. APbmeat display
`sbowbgp link to Bran& 7c of Docnmeat 2250 in tbe
`workers. He named his hypertext system as if embetided in a
`OAD Journal. A ViewSpec Febtzgm") pmvides the fallowing s ~ ~ c a t i o n s :
`tar-
`X a n h , after the "mad$Ec place of lieary
`Sb&Slent, a0 blaak &lWS
`State-
`memory" in a u e l Taylor C o k r i W s g d k?Vd pht@ #PI&, &lUW&?
`t0
`poem "Kubla Khan." In Xanadu, storage m, @ b w e tbat bras&
`7d), and tanr on Loerrtion
`space is saved by the heavy use of h k s . ~mbers. WWOW 2 W-2) sbswa the@iew obtained witB. a jump link command.
`operator ekks on the link in W-1, then
`Only the original document and the Ta pwforin a hnsp lbDk Wmmmd,
`*. Tbc very tog-left Wstem m
`m
`changes made to it are saved. The system moves the cars4;r into W-2 for tLc
`easily reconstruds previous versions of annonoesl3 that tbe &sired J o d Itdm has been accessed, and the sl@w at the
`is C B P H to th4 k e l S sad ih a*
`d the SC-
`vW~&S tbrt the
`t-
`docurnab. Nelson describes his objec-
`3 (W-3) show an i I I t Ink thd
`men& truncated t~ bllt line d. W-w
`tives as follows:
`Under guiding ideas which are not t e c l u f i specifies tke Umge pnth. Is eaeet, @is link says "go to the statement in the file
`in that file find
`linEt f
`file,
`fa named 'Bofa,' f e w
`d
` #bre to its -t
`
`but literary, we a r e i ~ ~ h g a
`as for the lirtk
`storage and retrieval of Jinked and window- hca@m Wmber $,"
`b speeifieQ
`in W-1, ~ i u d o w 4 (W-B)
`ing text. The doacmenf, our fundamental
`provides its general referem seurce
`unit* can have windows
`any other
`citatiea ia W S to sw W SLat-ent + using t ~ e jump name ce-.
`s e w at @ ernl of &e docmaent; a
`as the ~ f ~ m
`caa j-p
`from tbe link
`ments. The evolving corpus is continuaUy
`TO p e ~ .
`f@rm tbis COlW&MBd, be d&kS 0s c'w4" in W-3 &l%l && On W 4 . Widow 5
`expandable
`fundamental change.
`New links and windows can -tinually
`add
`Item W . Tbt user cria obtain this view
`(W-5) sbaws a view In the 0
`new
`pathways to old material. Fast
`
`~
`0
`4
`~
`ion the i n d h t linL of W-3. TO pertorm this
`proprietary algorithms render the exweme by p e r t o e jaw c ~ d
`command,
`the PI-
`data fngrmtatiOnto*nblein
`aser clicks on tl. bdhpd link of W-3 and then clicks in W-5.
`back-end service facility.'
`
`1@l@
`
`
`
`The long range goal of the Xanadu pro-
`ject has been facilitating the revolutionary
`process of placing the entire world's liter-
`tainable, and that a system
`ary corpus on line. In fact, Xanadu's
`tronic accounting and
`design makes a strong separation between
`royalties is in place. Nelson
`theuser interface and the database server,
`the advent of on-line librari
`with most of the emphasis placed on the a whole new market for the
`latter. In particular, great care has been and indexing of this
`taken that copyright protection is main-
`store.
`
`!
`
`/
`I
`
`September 1987
`
`service (much like
`A crude front end
`
`"
`
`I
`
`I
`
`007
`
`Facebook Ex. 1020
`
`

`
`tem is just a first step in the direction of his
`. vision:
`In our view, the bgical a d inevitable result
`[of the computer rewlutign] will be the trans-
`fer of all such [text handling] activities to the
`computer, transforming communication
`within the scientific community. All paper
`writing, critiquing, and refereeing will be per-
`
`I f~nned on line. Rather than having to track
`
`Trigg's Textnet. Randall T r i g w@e
`the first and to date the only PhD thesis on
`hypertext. In his thesis, he describes his
`Textnet system as supporting no1sIinear
`in which documents are
`orggnized as "pridtivt pieses of text can-
`lkected with typed )inks to form a n-k
`similar in many ways to a semmtic net."
`The thesis focuses on specific link types
`that support literary criticism.
`
`I text-text
`
`I In the tradition of the field, Trigg's sys-
`
`down little-known p r o c e s , journals or
`unpublished technical rpolts from distant
`universities, userr larin fiithabstored in one
`large distributed computerized national
`paper network. New papers d l
` be written
`using the network, oftea edlaborated on by
`multiple authors, d submitted to on-line
`electro&c pureals.b
`Textnet implements two basic types of
`nodes: those whicb have textual content
`(chunks) and tho& which hferarchicaily
`organize other nodes (tocs, for "table of
`contents"). Thus Textnet supports both
`hierarchical trees (via the toc nodes) and
`nonhierarchical graphs (via the typed
`links).
`Trigg further proposes a specific tax-
`onomy of link types for use by collabora-
`tors and critics in Textnet. He argues that
`there is generally a specific set of types of
`comments, and that there is a link type for
`each comment. For example, there are
`refutation and support links, and, more
`specifically, there are links to say that a
`point is irrelevant ("Pt-irrelevant"), that
`("D-
`data cited
`is
`inadequate
`inadequate"), or that the style is rambling
`("S-rambling"). Trigg describes over 80
`such link types and argues that the disad-
`vantage of having a M t e d set of link types
`is outweighed by the possibility of special-
`ized processing on the hyperdocument
`afforded by a definite and fixed set of
`primitives.
`In addition, Textnet supports the defi-
`nition of paths-ordered
`lists of nodes
`used to browse linear concatenations of
`text and to dump such scans to hard copy.
`The path facility relieves the hypertext
`reader from having to make an n-way deci-
`sion at each link; rather, the reader is
`provided a default pathway through the
`network (or part of thenetwork), and can
`simply read the material in the suggested
`
`orde