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`EXHIBIT 1013
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`CQE’Y FREE COPY EVREEEZ COPY
`
`BRIEF CONTENTS
`
`1
`
`An Overview of the Production Process
`
`2
`
`How Television Works
`
`3
`
`Lenses and Their Effects
`
`4
`
`Video Cameras
`
`5
`
`Color
`
`6
`
`Lighting
`
`7
`
`Audio
`
`1
`
`15
`
`32
`
`57
`
`93
`
`113
`
`159
`
`8
`
`Composition
`
`211
`
`9
`
`Video Control and Effects
`
`232
`
`
`
`
`
`
`”‘x
`(I,.
`
`31h
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`10
`
`Video Recording
`
`11
`
`Sets and Graphics
`
`12
`
`Scripts and the Creative Sequence
`
`13
`
`Producing and Directing
`
`14
`
`Principles of Editing
`
`15
`
`Editing Techniques
`
`16
`
`ENG and Single—Camera, Film—Style Production
`
`17 Multiple-Camera Field Production
`
`257
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`284
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`317
`
`341
`
`364
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`393
`
`427
`
`447
`
`
`
`18
`
`On-Camera Concerns
`
`474
`
`19
`
`Legal and Ethical Guidelines
`
`496
`
`20
`
`Institutional and Private Video
`
`

`

`9 Video Control
`
`and Effects
`
`
`
`
`
`production switcher: Standard control
`room switcher that enables the TD to put
`any video source or composite picture on
`the air.
`
`A production sWitcher (Figure 9.1) is to video what an audio console is to audio:
`a master controlling and mixing device. Production switchers serve two produc—
`tion phases. First, they are used to switch (edit) a production in real time when
`decisions on shots and effects are done by the director as a show is recorded or
`broadcast. Second, they are used in postproduction when the a video switcher
`and all its effects capabilities are tied in with the videotape editing process.
`Today’s production switchers go far beyond the simple switching and mixing
`of video sources. They commonly include a SEG (special effects1 generator) or
`DVE (digital video effects) unit2 which can shrink, expand, flip, spin, wipe and
`combine images in a multitude of ways. In fact, it seems impossible to envision
`a Visual effect that can’t be done with one of today’s most sophisticated SEGs.
`Unlike film, where visual effects, or opticals, take days or weeks to complete,
`in video, effects can be set up and examined immediately. With digital video a
`sequence, of highly complex visual effects can be slowly “built” element by
`element, electronically memorized and then played back at a touch of a button.
`Because of Video’s advantages in doing visual effects, many of today’s film
`effects are created in high-resolution video and then transferred to film.
`
`1. Since special effects are not all that special any more, many feel that the term visual effects is
`more appropriate.
`2. It is difficult today to make a clear distinction between production switcher, postproduction
`switcher, special effects generator, digital video eflects unit, and digital video manipulator. All of
`these terms are used to describe switching/visual effects units. Facilities that require elaborate
`visual effect capabilities commonly have one or more separate video effects units designed to
`supplement the basic production switcher.
`
`
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`
`
`
`

`

`COMPUTER—BASED swnthe AND EFFECTS
`
`233
`
`FIGURE 9.1
`A production switcher is to video what
`an audio console is to audio: a master
`controlling and mixing device. Switch-
`ers serve two production phases: first,
`to switch (edit) a production in real
`time, and second, for postproduction
`where the switcher’s effects capabilities
`
`can be tied in with the editing process.
`
`COMPUTER-BASED SWITCHING AND EFFECTS
`
`In recent years dedicated switchers~especially for postproduction work—have
`been replaced to some degree by computer-based systems that can do a wide
`variety of postproduction tasks, including titles, graphics and video effects. The
`introduction of the Video Toaster system for the Amiga computer in 1990 rep-
`resented a major step in this direction (Figure 9.2). It was at this point that
`affordable, broadcast-quality video effects became available to a wide range of
`
`TAKE FREEZE
`
`FIGURE 9.2
`With the introduction of the Video
`Toaster system, affordable, broadcast—
`quality video effects became available
`to a wide range of video users. Many
`of the on-screen symbols used in this
`desktop computer system are designed
`to look like elements of a standard
`video switcher.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`234
`
`CHAPTER 9
`
`VIDEO CONTROL AND EFFECTS
`
`
`
`
`Character
`Electronic
`still store
`generator
`
`VTR 3
`
`Satellite
`
`Camera 1 Camera 2 Camera 3
`
`
`
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`
`
`Production
`switcher
`
`FIGURE 9.3
`A variety of video sources can be han—
`dled by a production switcher. In this
`illustration three cameras, three video—
`tape machines, a film chain, a satellite
`receiver, an electronic still store device
`and a character generator can be ac—
`commodated. Video from each of the
`sources is assigned to a specific button
`on the switcher.
`
`video users. Many of the on-screen symbols used in these computer—based sys-
`tems are designed to look like elements of a standard video switcher. Therefore,
`a familiarity with the operation of a video switcher will help in understanding
`and operating computer—based systems.
`In this chapter we’ll cover the basics of switching and visual effects. In the
`next two chapters we’ll go more into detail on how the effects are used—
`especially in postproduction.
`
`ELEMENTS 0F VIDEO SWITCHING
`
`Note in Figure 9.3 how a variety of video sources can be handled by a produc-
`tion switcher; in this case three cameras, three videotape machines, a film chain,
`a satellite receiver, an electronic still store device (containing hundreds of still
`photos in electronic form) and a character generator (for electronically creating
`titles, credits, graphics and animated visuals). Also note in Figure 9.3 that the
`video from each of the sources is assigned to a specific button on the switcher.
`In contrast to the switcher illustrated in Figure 9.4, more sophisticated
`production switchers (Figure 9.5) have many rows of buttons—not to mention
`an ample assortment of switches, knobs and levers. Initially, all this looks quite
`intimidating. But, as you can begin to see by comparing Figure 9.5 to Figure
`9.4, many of these buttons actually control the same video sources.
`Regardless of how simple or complex the switcher, the most important row
`w,
`of buttons is the program bus.
`
`FIGURE 9.4
`Some basic switching functions are il-
`lustrated in this simplified switcher
`drawing. Sophisticated production
`switchers have many rows of buttons —
`not to mention an ample assortment
`of switches, knobs and levers (Fig—
`
`ure 9.5).
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
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`
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`
`
`The Program Bus
`It is the row of buttons called the program bus, or direct—take bus, that deter-
`mines what video will be directed to line out or program. This is probably the
`most used row of buttons (bus) on any switcher. Pushing a button on the program
`bus results in an instant switch (cut) from one video source to another. In Figure
`9.6 you can see that the button marked Cam. I is illuminated. As a result, the
`video from camera I is appearing on the line out monitor. If the button marked
`Cam. 2 were pushed, the video from camera 2 would instantly3 appear on the
`line out monitor (and the light under the Cam. 1 button would go out as the light
`under the Cam. 2 button lit up). In short, you have cut from camera I to camera
`2. And, of course, pushing any other button on the program bus results in an
`instant switch to that video source.
`
`3. Technically, it is not always “instantly.” The switching electronics have to wait until the interval
`between video frames before the switch can be made; otherwise the picture would roll on the screen
`until the new picture got into “sync." Since pictures are completely scanned every thirtieth of a
`second in NTSC television, the maximum delay in switching from one video source to another will
`always be less than one-thirtieth of a second—not exactly the kind of delay anyone needs to sit and
`worry over!
`
`Mix/Effects buses
`
`Line out l
`
`llllllllll
`
`Program bus
`
`
`
`ELEMENTS or VIDEO swnmme
`
`235
`
`FIGURE 9.5
`Initially, all the buttons and levers on a
`switcher look intimidating. However, as
`you will discover, many of the buttons
`on a large production switcher simply
`duplicate several times over the buttons
`shown in Figure 9.4.
`
`line out monitor.
`
`program bus: The master bus on a video
`switcher that determines the final output of
`the switcher.
`
`FIGURE 9.6
`Pushing a button on the program bus
`results in an instant switch (cut) from
`one video source to another. Here, the
`button marked Cam. 1 is illuminated,
`As a result, camera 1 is appearing
`on the line out monitor. If the button
`marked Cam. 2 were pushed, the video
`from camera 2 would appear on the
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`FIGURE 9.8
`If you start with the setup shown in
`Figure 9.7 and move the fader bars to
`the top position, the video from camera
`3 can be directed through the Eflects
`button to the line out monitor. In so
`doing, you have dissolved from camera
`2 to camera 3.
`
`
`
`
`236
`
`CHAPTER 9
`
`VIDEO CONTROL AND EFFECTS
`
`FIGURE 9.7
`The Eflecrs button on the right side of
`the program bus represents the com—
`bined output of the mix/effects (M/E)
`bank. Two levers called fader bars de—
`termine how much video from bus A
`and bus B will be directed to the Ef-
`fecrs button, The left fader bar controls
`the output of bus A and the right fader
`bar controls the output of bus B. Since
`the fader bars are in the down posi—
`tion, camera 2 is being directed
`through the Effects button to line out.
`
`TD (technical director): The individual
`who operates the control room switcher and
`is in charge of various technical aspects of a
`production.
`
`M/E.‘ Mix/effects bank. A double row of
`buttons on a switcher that can be used for
`video effects.
`
`fader bars: A pair of levers on the
`switcher that allows for gradual changes in
`video levels They can be used to produce
`superimpositions, dissolves, fades, keys or
`wipes at different speeds.
`
`Mix/Effects buses
`
`Faders down
`(B-bus position)
`
`Line out
`
`lllllllWilli
`
`Fader
`
`Fader
`
`Program bus
`
`
`
`During the course of a normal production the TD (technical director) or
`switcher (the person running the production switcher) will rely primarily on the
`program bus to cut from video source to another. It is only when a visual effect
`is desired—primarily a dissolve, fade, wipe or key—that it is necessary to use
`another part of the switcher.
`
`Mix/ Effects Buses
`
`Note in Figure 9.7 that the last button on the right of the program bus is labeled
`Effects. This stands for mix/effects bank (or M/E). This button represents the
`combined output of the two rows of buttons above the program bus: one marked
`A and one marked B. Two levers called fader bars (generally locked together so
`they move at the same time) determine how much video from bus A and bus B
`will be directed to the Effects button on the program bus. The left fader bar
`controls the output of bus A and the right fader bar controls the output of bus
`B. They are configured to work in reverse of each other, so when both bars are
`in the up position the video output of the A—bus is maximum and the output of
`the B-bus is zero. Conversely, as you move the levers to the down position the
`video output of the A—bus goes from 100 percent to zero, as the video from the
`B-bus goes from zero to 100 percent.
`Note in Figure 9.7 that the fader bars are in the down position. This means
`that whatever video source is selected (“punched up”) on the B-bus will be
`directed to Efiects on the program bus. But it is not until the Effects button on
`the program bus is actually pushed that the video source will go to the line out
`monitor.
`Let’s look at an example. In Figure 9.7 you will note that the button marked
`Cam. 2 on M/E bus B is illuminated, and the fader bars are in the down (B—bus)
`
`position. Since the Eflects button is pushed on the program bus, camera 2 is
`s.
`r
`
`Mix/Effects buses
`
`Fader A Fader B
`
` Willi
`l
`
`Line out
`l l
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`VTRA
`
`VTR B Graphicsi GraphicsZ Satellite
`
`SNG Van
`
`Camera 1 CameraZ Cameras Camera4
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`Preset
`
`Line out
`
`Preview
`
`’
`
`Stopclocks
`
`Script
`
`Studio
`addreSS
`microphone
`
`,
`_
`Director 3
`headset
`Intercom
`Swrtches
`
`
`
`PREVIEW/FRESH momrorzs
`
`237
`
`FIGURE 9.9
`This shows a typical setup for a TV
`control room. The line out monitor
`shows the video being sent to a video-
`tape machine for recording, or, if the
`production is live, the picture that is
`being sent to the transmitter. In some
`control rooms one monitor may serve
`both previewing and presetting func-
`tions; in others there may be two such
`monitors.
`
`
`”"mu:2.w
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`Associate Director
`
`Director
`
`Technical Director (TD)
`
`visible on the line out monitor. Note also in Figure 9.7 that Cam. 3 is punched
`up on M/E bus A. Therefore, by simply moving the fader bars to the top
`position, as shown in Figure 9.8, the video from camera 3 can be directed to
`the line out monitor.
`
`PREVIEW/PRESET MONITORS
`
`Of course, when the Eflects button is pressed on the program bus, anything set
`up on the mix/effects bank will go immediately to line out. As we will soon see,
`it is important to check (and adjust) visual effects before they are “officially
`seen.” This is the role of monitors called preview monitors, preset monitors or
`mix/effects monitors. (See Figure 9.9.) In some control rooms one monitor
`may serve all previewing and presetting functions. In others there may be two
`such monitors: one for previewing upcoming video sources and the other for
`setting up (presetting) visual effects.
`In Figure 9.10 you will note that an additional row of buttons called the
`preview bus has been added under the program bus. (The preview bus may also
`be placed near the top of a switcher.) Any video source, including the output of
`mix/effects, can be punched up on this bus and viewed on a preview monitor—-
`without in any way affecting the video on the program bus. As we’ve noted, one
`of the primary purposes of preview monitors is to set up and adjust visual
`effects; even simple ones like the super.
`
`preview monitor: A video monitor that
`can be used to check any camera or video
`effect before use.
`
`preview bus: A switcher bus, generally
`connected to a preview monitor, used for
`setting up and checking video sources be-
`fore use.
`
`
`
`

`

`238
`
`CHAPTER 9
`
`VIDEO CONTROL AND EFFECTS
`
`FIGURE 9.10
`Here, an additional row of buttons
`called a preview bus has been added
`under the program bus. Any video
`source, including the output of mix/
`effects, can be punched up on this bus
`and checked before use. If you stop the
`fader bars midway between the A-bus
`and B-bus positions, you will get both
`video sources at the same time—one
`over the other. (See Figure 9.12A).
`
`Mix/Effects
`
`
`
`
`
` Program
`Preview
`
`
`
`Fader A Fader B
`O
`O
`at 50 /0
`at 50 A:
`
`Program = Super
`
`
`
`
`
`super: Superimposition. A double-
`exposure effect that predates the key in
`which two video sources can be seen on the
`screen at the same time.
`
`dissolve: Simultaneously fading out of one
`picture while fading in another. There is a
`momentary superimposition of the two im-
`ages midway through the effect.
`
`fade: Making video appear from black
`(fade in), or the reverse, making a video sig—
`nal slowly disappear to black (fade out; fade
`to black).
`
`VISUAL EFFECTS
`
`Supers, Faders and Dissolves
`
`From what has been said, you might assume that if you stop the fader bars
`midway between the A—bus and the B-bus you will get both video sources at the
`same time—one over the other (Figure 9.10). That’s true. When one image is
`superimposed over another in this way it is called a super. Before the deVelop«
`ment of electronic keying, all titles, program credits, subtitles etc. were supered
`over background video sources. Unfortunately,
`this results in lowered video
`levels (50 percent video) in both pictures—and a slightly muddy result.“'5
`But, supers do have their place—if only in passing. Dissolves are the result
`of moving the fader bars from one bus position to another so that, in the process,
`the images overlap for a brief period of time. If it takes three seconds. to move
`the fader bars from one bus to another the result is a three—second dissolve. In
`some switchers and software-based switching systems, dissolves are done with-
`out fader bars; you simply enter the sources involved and program the switcher
`for a one—second dissolve, a three—second dissolve or whatever.
`Another use of the fader bar is to do a fade. Let’s look at an example of how
`you could fade out of camera 3 (to black) and then fade up (from black) to
`camera 2. Referring back to Figure 9.8, you would first punch up Black (in
`place of Cam. 2) on the B—bus. When the time came to fade to black, you would
`move the fader bars to the B-bus (down) position. This would be your fade to
`black. You would then punch up Cam. 2 on the A-bus. When you moved the
`fader bars to the up (A-bus) position, camera 2 would slowly appear. Figure
`9.11 compares three visual effects described so far: cuts, dissolves and fades to
`black.
`
`‘
`
`Occasionally—maybe if you are planning to do a production involving a
`ghost—it might be desirable to hold a super for a period of time. Unlike a key,
`which is electronically inset into a background source of video, in supers both
`video sources are slightly transparent (Figure 9.12). As noted before, this can
`have a slightly muddy result. But it would be useful for supering ghosts (which,
`
`4. To reduce the muddy effect and provide the brightest possible titles, the blanking level on thé
`camera with the title cards is normally brought down to zero (as seen on a waveform monitor) and
`the white level brought up to 100. By altering the blanking and video gain in this way, you can
`often take out unwanted details. These same adjustments are made for cameras being used as key
`sources for titles (to be discussed later).
`
`5. When colors are supered over each other an additive effect is produced. For example, when
`green is supered over red, the result is yellow. (Refer to Chapter 5 for an explanation of additive
`color.)
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`Super
`
`
`
`
`
`Camera 1
`
`Camera 2
`
`Key
`
`
`\§\
`
`
`
`Camera 1
`
`Camera 2
`
`
`
`Camera 2 supered
`ove Ca ea
`
`
`
`Camera 2 keyed
`over camera 1
`
`according to occasionally reliable sources, are supposed to be partially transpar—
`ent) over a background scene.The figure of the ghost, in this case, could be shot
`against a black background with one camera and that camera image superim—
`posed over another video source (let’s say the interior of an 18th~century house).
`Objects, especially bright objects,
`in the background video source (the eerie
`room) would then be visible through the ghost, thus preserving their reputation
`for being semitransparent.
`What if you want to fade to black from a super? First, there are two things
`you won’t want to do. Punching up Black on either the A—bus or the B—bus
`(Figure 9.10) will result in a partial loss of the super (and, in our example, either
`an instant loss of the ghost or the room). Punching up Black on the program bus
`would result in an instantaneous (and abrupt) cut to black. Neither would look
`. good.
`There are two acceptable solutions. On many switchers the fader bars on a
`mix/effects bank can be unlocked and moved independently. When each is
`moved to its zero—video position (Figure 9.13) the result would be a graceful
`fade to black. Moving them in the opposite directions (each to its maximum
`position) should definitely be avoided. This could result in 200 percent video:
`100 percent from the A—bus and 100 percent from the B—bus."
`(
`
`6. If a waveform monitor is visible (which it is in most large production facilities), the bars can
`sometimes be split in this direction to bring the video up to a full 100 percent, But exceeding 100
`percent video can cause serious quality and image stability problems.
`
`VISUAL EFFEClS
`
`239
`
`FIGURE 9.1]
`Instantaneous switches from one scene
`to another are called cuts. When
`scenes momentarily overlap during a
`transition it is called a dissolve. Finally,
`in the bottom example the scenes are
`divided by a momentary fade to black.
`Momentary fades to black are often
`used to signify changes in time or
`location,
`
`
`
`
`
`llllllllllll W llll Illlllllllls
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`Dissolve
`
`FIGURE 9.12
`You can use either a super or a key to
`get two sources of video on the screen
`at the same time, However, the results
`are different. A super is like a double
`exposure: two video sources appear
`in the same place simultaneously. For
`titles, at key gives in a much clearer
`effect.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

` 240
`
`CHAPTER 9
`
`VIDEO CONTROI AND EFFECTS
`
`FIGURE 9.13
`In many switchers the fader bars on a
`mix/effects bank can be unlocked and
`moved independently. When each is
`moved to its zero-Video position, the
`result is black. Moving them in the op-
`posite directions should definitely be
`avoided. This results in 200 percent
`video: [00 percent from the A—bus and
`100 percent from the B—bus.
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`double re-entry: A switcher that permits
`the output of one mix/effects bus to be re-
`entered into another mix/effects bus for fur-
`ther video manipulation.
`triple re-entry: A video switcher system
`in which the results of one mix/effects bank
`can be directed through another, and then
`the results of that can, in turn, be directed
`through a third mix/effects bank, thus com-
`bining three layers of video effects.
`
`FIGURE 9.l4
`In addition to being able to fade to
`black as shown in Figure 9.13, there
`is a better way on switchers with two
`mix/effects banks. M/E-I and black
`are selected on M/E-Z. You can then
`fade out of any M/E-l effect by fading
`to black on M/E—Z. Note that M/E-Z
`has been selected on the program bus.
`
`Fader B
`
`at O % Mix/Effects
`
`Program = 0
`
`Program
`
`Preview
`
`Multiple Mix/ Effects Sources
`On a switcher with two or more mix/effects sources, fading to black from a
`super could be done in at least two other ways. In Figure 9.14, M/E-l could be
`routed through M/E—Z. In this case M/E-Z will simply treat the output of M/E-l
`as it would any other video source. The super you’ve set up on M/E—l could then
`be faded to black with the fader bars on the second M/E bank. (To send the final
`result to program or line out, M/E-2 must, of course, be punched up on the
`program bus.)
`With switchers that have two M/E banks it is possible to put an effect over
`an effect (if, for some reason, you have a need to do that). This is done by
`feeding the output of one M/E bank through another M/E bank. In the process
`you add whatever effect you have set up on M/E—l to M/E—2. This is referred to
`as double re-entty. Some switchers even have three M/E sources and are capable
`of triple re—entry.
`With this we move from the simple mix aspect of M/Es (supers, fades and
`dissolves) to the effects component (keys and wipes). On most switchers there
`are buttons to the right of the M/E banks to select a mix, key or wipe (Fig—
`ure 9.15).
`
`Mix/Effects 1
`
`(A—bus, 50%; B-bus, 50%)
`
`Faders at midway point
`
`Fader Fader
`A
`B
`
`Mix/Effects 2
`
`Faders down
`(B-bus position)
`
`Line out
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`VISUAL EFFEGS
`
`241
`
`FIGURE 9.15
`Although there are limited uses for
`simple mix functions on switchers,
`when we move to the key and wipe
`
`and special effects becomes possible.
`(Note the mix, key and wipe buttons on
`the right of the fader bars.)
`
`modes 3 whole range of keys, wipes
`
`M/E 1
`
`Key clip
`
`Program
`
`Preview
`
`
`
`
`Luminance Keys
`
`You will note from Figure 9.12 that (except for the production requirements of
`ghosts) the effect of a key is much better than a super. Unlike a super, with a
`standard luminance key the two video sources are not placed on top of each
`other. Instead, an area of the background video is electronically “cut out,” and
`the. second Video source (the key source) is inserted into the empty space. In a
`basic key the specific area cut out is determined by the shape of the bright areas
`(luminance) of the second key source (the video being keyed into the back-
`ground). With a key, the two images can’t interfere with each other as they do
`with a super since only one source of Video will be visible at any one point. This
`also means that both video sources can be used at 100 percent of their levels,
`and not just 50 percent as in the case of the standard super.
`
`internal and External Key Sources
`A distinction between an external key and internal key is made on some switch-
`ers. An internal key, the one we’ve been talking about, involves two sources: a
`background and a key source. The roles of the key source (the video to be
`inserted into the background video) are (1) to define the shape of the area that is
`to be cut out and (2) to supply the video that will fill the cutout area. With
`internal keys, the background video is selected on one M/E bank and the key
`source on the other. Once you push a button marked key next to a M/E bank
`(Figure 9.15) and the fader bars are moved toward the bus with the key source,
`this video is then inserted (keyed into) the background video.7
`
`7. In an effort to reduce the number of banks on switchers, delegation controls are commonly
`used to assign different roles to banks. On some switchers the preview bank can be delegated as a
`key source selector. As we’ve noted, production switchers vary considerably in their features and
`operation, so no attempt can be made in this chapter to provide a guide to the operation of all
`switchers.
`
`
`
`,
`key source: A video source keyed into
`background VideO-
`
`-
`
`
`
`ll
`l)
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
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`
`
`242
`
`CHAPTER 9
`
`VIDEO CONTROL AND EFFECTS
`
`
`
`Camera 1
`Background video
`
`HGURE9J6
`When a third video source is involved
`in a key it is referred to as an exter—
`nal key. In this case the first video
`source (Camera l) is the background
`camera and the second source (Camera
`2) defines the area to be cut (keyed) out
`of the background. Camera 3 shows
`the content for the key pattern. The last
`frame shows the final result.
`
`downstream keyer: A device that allows
`titles to be keyed over a line out signal.
`
`
`
`Camera 2
`Key pattern
`
`Camera 3
`Key fill pattern
`
`Final result
`
`There is also another type of key, which involves a third Video source. This
`is referred to as an external key. Just as in the case of the internal key, the first
`video source is the background camera and the second source defines the area
`to be cut (keyed) out of the background. But, in the case of an external key
`(sometimes called third camera key) a third Video source represents the content
`that will be put into the area defined by the second video source (Figure 9.16).
`When external key (not shown in the illustrations) is selected on a switcher, the
`video from a designated bus becomes the “third camera.”
`
`Downstream Keyers
`
`With a downstream keyer (Figure 9.17) the key is added to the video after it
`leaves the switcher (“downstream” from the program bus). Putting the keyer
`downstream means that a M/E bank on the SEG can be freed up for other
`purposes. The effect of a downstream key can be previewed (and adjusted)
`before use by punching it up on an effects monitor. Most downstream keyers
`have two sets of fader bars: one to fade the key in and out and the second to
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`
`HGURE9J7
`
`When a downstream keyer is added
`
`to a switcher, a mix/effects bank can
`
`be freed up for other purposes. Most
`
`downstream keyers have two sets of
`M/E 1
`
`fader bars: one to fade the key in and
`
`out and the second to fade the entire
`
`downstream video signal to black. CG—
`
`1 and CG—2 represent two character
`
`generators used to key titles and credits
`
`over the final video. The effect of
`
`downstream keys can be previewed
`
`(and adjusted) on an effects monitor.
`
`
`
`
`~ DOWNSTREAM
`Program
`KEYER
`
`Preview
`
`
`
`
`
`

`

`
`
`VISUAL trrttts
`
`243
`
`fade the entire downstream video signal to black. This would be used if you
`wanted to fade a downstream key to black at the end of a production.
`
`Adjusting the Key Source
`The final result of a luminance key is dependent upon the luminance (video
`level) of the key source. A control called a key clip (sometimes called a clipper
`gain knob) is provided on the switcher to adjust this level (Figure 9.17). Before
`keys are used, they must be checked (and generally adjusted) with this control.
`Too much level from the key source and the key will smear across the back—
`ground picture; too little and the edges of the key image will look thin, tear and,
`in extreme cases, not be visible at all. Key clip adjustments shéfild be made
`while carefully observing the result on an effects monitor. By adjusting this
`control you can drop out middle tones in video and create interesting high-
`contrast effects (Figure 9.18).
`Unless the background video is significantly different in tonal and color
`values from the keyed—in information, there can be'a legibility problem with
`keyed-in text. Several additional key adjustments are provided that can help this
`problem.
`
`Altering Key Colors
`
`It is possible with most of today’s switchers and character generators (CGs) to
`change the color (and associated color attributes) of the keyed—in material with
`hue, saturation and brightness controls (Figure 9.19). In some switchers these
`controls are referred to as colorizing controls. When the switcher provides the
`video to be keyed into the area cut out by the key source, it is referred to as a
`matte key. In this case the key source simply defines the shape of the matte and
`the switcher fills in a color that has been selected on the colorizer. Mattes also
`
`
`
`HHUNMthElt-J u
`HEWEWWUEZW
`UHEIfiEfiUDE
`
`
`
` Key clip
`
`
`Saturation
`Width
`
`
`Brightness
`
`Sharpness
`
`
`
`Hue
`
`
`
`
`
`FIGURE 9.18
`The key function on a switcher opens
`the door to many special effects. Here,
`all middle tones are dropped out with
`the key clip control, and the effect is a
`stark black-and—white image.
`
`key clip: A control on a video effects unit
`used to set the threshold level for color or
`luminance keying.
`colorizing control: A knob that can move
`through the entire range of colors and be
`used to select any color for electronic
`effects.
`
`FIGURE 9.19
`It is possible with most of today’s
`switchers and C03 to change the color
`of keyed-in material with the hue, satu—
`ration and brightness controls. Note the
`color wheel represented on the hue
`control. A variety of wipe patterns are
`shown at the top of the drawing. The
`edges of these wipes can be modulated
`(made to fluctuate) with the pattern
`modulation control. The frequenc