SEL EXHIBIT NO. 2012
`INNOLUX CORP. v. PATENT OF SEMICONDUCTOR ENERGY
`LABORATORY CO., LTD.
`
`IPR2013-00065
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`

`
`ActiveMatrix
`Liquid crystal
`Displays
`
`Fundamentals and
`Applications
`
`Willem den Boer @
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`Hewnes
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`

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`Pilfiutl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
`
`Contents
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`Chapter Ella: l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
`1.1 HifiIflfiC.E|lPE1'|ipeCti'-"E .
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`1.3 Pnlatizatioti. Dichmisni. and l3iteFr:'mg:nr.e .
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`1.5 Limitntimis of Passive Matrix Addrmsing .
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`REFEIEIIIES .
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`fllapfiwfww D;¢In'¢tiq[Frfiu¢ipInnfA:h‘rI'Mnfl-ilLEDs ................... ...?3
`1.1
`'l'heCa5|: fur Arrive Matrix . . .
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`3.3 Rcquitetnenti fur Fictiw: Matrix Switching llcvitnes .
`2.3 Tl'u:ThJ‘n Film Tramismr
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`3.4 Thin Film Silicun Pniparties .
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`1.5
`ifimntphnus Silictm TPT5 .
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`2.5
`Piilyefiilictm TF|'s . . .
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`2.? Basic Pixel Circuit and .Fs.|;I4;Ir|:fi1'ngI'I."IetI'11}t;I.Ii.
`1.3
`Ilindaaflased Displays
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`3.9 Plasltta-Addressed LED;
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`Rnlitrn-runes .
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`aupm mm: g nf'AMLCD:t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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`3.1 Thin. Film Prucaasing .
`3.} Thin Film Prupcrties ................. .
`3.4 Amtnphnus Silicnn TFT Army Frricesses
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`3.fi Colur Filter ._-‘Err;-,r Fruccsq.
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`3.? LC Call H.-ssembly .
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`3.3 Module Assembly .
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`Cd-‘I'ulII'l'l:
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`‘field ltnpruveutents arid Cnr'tsidr.-Iatiram .
`3.9
`3.1:) Trends in Manufacturing .
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`fluptlr Four: An-{LCD Eflttntnits ............................... . . 3:?
`++l Drive in-’lt:thn$ . . + . . + . . . . .
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`4.2 Raw Select and Culurnn Data Dn'w,-rs . . .
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`-1-3 Timing Contmllcrs. Display Curntmllcts. and Interfaces
`£4 lntEgraIiunafElI:£tnJI1l£EflI1Gla55 .
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`1: Brightntfi and Cuntran: F-atin .
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`5.3 Viewing Angle: Eehmriot
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`ltttage flu-t'rl'-.tcI:.1
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`Eiuphrfiirt bnpruwmmtuflmttgcgwflythfifllfifls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1'39
`ELI Brightness lmpmwzmenta.
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`ti: Readability Untltat High. .P1.tr|l:Iient. Lighring Cundlriuns .
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`15.‘-hi
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`. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
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`in
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`cepyrighted hlnteriel
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`

`
`CHAPTER 2 Operating Principles of Active Matrix L CDs 2.1 The Case for Active Matrix
`
`Passive matrix LCDs are relatively easy to manufacture and do not require very large
`investments. An active matrix LCD, on the other hand, consists of thin film
`semiconductor circuitry on a glass substrate and shares some of the manufacturing
`complexity of integrated circuits on semiconductor wafers.
`The efficient production of active matrix LCDs requires large capital investments at the
`same level of wafer fabs for IC manufacturing. The incentive for an LCD producer to
`make this investment rather than sticking with passive matrix LCDs is simple: image
`quality, including resolution, maximum size, contrast ratio, viewing angle, gray scale, and
`video performance is much better in AMLCDs than in passive matrix LCDs. The
`resolution limitation of the passive matrix was addressed in the previous chapter.
`Another drawback of passive matrix addressing is that the capacitance of the select and
`data buslines increases with the square of the diagonal size of the LCD. Since the
`buslines in passive matrix LCDs consist of transparent conductors with relatively high
`resistance, the RC delays and power consumption in large passive LCDs become
`unmanageable.
`By adding a semiconductor switch at each pixel, the drawbacks of multiplexing in a
`passive matrix are eliminated. In the active matrix configuration, the voltage at each
`pixel and therefore its transmission and gray level can be accurately controlled.
`A conventional semiconductor process on crystalline Si wafers could, in principle, be
`used for AMLCDs. In fact, this has been successful in reflective microdisplays for
`projection and personal viewers and is commonly referred to as liquid crystal on silicon
`(LCOS).
`For larger displays, however, several factors preclude the use of crystalline silicon. First, it
`is opaque for visible light and is therefore not compatible with transmissive, backlit
`displays such as used in notebooks or desktop monitors. Secondly, processed silicon wafers
`
`23
`

`
`have a limited size (not exceeding 12 in.) and are too expensive. In the semiconductor
`industry there is a constant push for smaller and more compact circuitry by reducing
`design rules, which is not needed for AMLCD fabrication.
`In an AMLCD most of the viewing area consists of the transparent pixel electrodes. The
`semiconductor switch and address lines cover only a small fraction of the pixel area.
`There is no strong incentive to move to advanced submicron design rules since, for large
`displays with larger pixels, most features actually become larger. In other words, apart
`from the need for transparent substrates, the use of crystalline wafers would be overkill
`for the simple circuitry required in most AMLCDs.
`Thin film processing has come to the rescue; it allows simple circuitry to be
`manufactured on large glass substrates with relatively modest design rules and an
`acceptable, reduced number of process steps.
`In terms of operation, the AMLCD is comparable to dynamic random access memory
`(DRAM). Like the DRAM, the AMLCD consists of arrays of cells in which a voltage is
`stored. In the case of most LCDs this is not a digital voltage, but an analog voltage to
`represent different gray levels.
`The business model for AMLCD manufacturers also shows some resemblance to that of
`memory manufacturers. To a large degree, both products have become commodities with
`constant price pressure and their markets are cyclical in the sense that there are periods
`of excess supply and excess demand.
`
`The LC pixel in an LCD can, for all practical purposes, be treated as a low-leakage
`capacitor. This capacitance needs to be charged from the data voltage at one polarity to
`the data voltage of opposite polarity during each refresh cycle to obtain an AC voltage
`without a DC component across the LC pixel. In static images the amplitude of the data
`voltage across the LC pixels remains constant; only their polarity will change in every
`frame to prevent degradation of the LC cell. When the displayed information changes
`(as in video displays with moving images), the amplitude may change as well, so that the
`gray level can be varied according to the image data.
`for the pixel is shown. It is given by
`In Fig. 2.1 the geometry of the LC capacitance CLc
`the equation
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`CLc ~o~cwl =
`
`d
`
`'
`
`(2.1)
`
`Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays
`2.2 Requirements for Active Matrix Switching Devices
`24
`

`
`Operating Principles of Active Matrix LCDs Figure 2.1" Geometry of the LC pixel capacitance.
`
`where e 0 is the permittivity constant in vacuum, eLc is the dielectric constant of the LC
`material, w and l are the side dimensions of the pixel electrode, and d is the LC layer
`thickness (also called the LC cell gap). Since the LC dielectric constant depends on the
`orientation of the molecules, the LC pixel capacitance varies significantly with applied
`voltage.
`For example, in a TN cell that uses LC fluid with a positive dielectric anisotropy, the LC
`director will be perpendicular to the electric field between the pixel electrodes for
`applied voltages below the threshold. Then, e(cid:127) should be substituted for eLc in Eq. 2.1.
`When 5-10 V AC is applied so that the LC molecules will line up along the electric field
`direction, ell should be substituted in Eq. 2.1. As a result, the capacitance can increase by
`a factor of two to three. For intermediate applied voltages there is a continuous variation
`of the effective dielectric constant of the LC layer from e(cid:127) to ell. LC pixel capacitances
`in practical LCDs are typically 1 pF or less.
`Figure 2.2 shows the circuit of four pixels in a passive matrix LCD. The solid lines
`represent the circuitry on one substrate, while the dotted lines represent the circuitry
`on the opposite substrate. In the passive matrix LCD, the LC pixel capacitors are
`simply formed where the striped transparent electrodes intersect (see also Fig. 1.13 in
`Chapter 1). The select and data lines are on opposite substrates.
`In a TFT-based AMLCD (Fig. 2.3), both select and data lines are on the active matrix
`substrate, along with the pixel electrode and storage capacitor. The counter-electrode of
`each LC pixel capacitor, indicated by the dotted line, is a single common transparent
`
`25
`

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`Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays Data line Select line : - : A
`
`it"
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`"
`
`i."
`
`"
`
`LC pixel ~,~ u (cid:12)9 u (cid:12)9 ! | (cid:12)9 , Passive matrix
`
`Figure 2.2" Circuit diagram for four
`
`pixels in a passive matrix LCD. Data line Storage capacitor Select line TFT ._1_ i" i ' -i i _.12 i"i ~r-_ : "3__ i --I-- : --- LC pixel ...................... Common Figure 2.3: Circuit diagram for four pixels in an active matrix LCD.
`
`electrode on the opposite substrate (which usually also has color filters). This common
`electrode is shared by all pixels in the array.
`After the LC pixel capacitance is charged up to the data voltage, the TFT is switched
`OFF and the pixel electrode on the active array is floating. The pixel capacitor should
`retain its data voltage for the remainder of the frame time until the next address time. As
`discussed in Sec. 1.2 in Chapter 1, the LC fluid needs to have a high resistivity to
`prevent leakage currents. The capacity to retain charge is often expressed in the voltage
`holding ratio (VHR), which is defined as
`
`V=s
`
`1
`
`V 2
`
`(2.2)
`
`(2.3)
`
`is the RMS voltage, V o~c is the peak voltage of the LC pixel waveform, and Tf
`where V
`is the frame time, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
`
`VHR - Vpeak ,
`V s- (oat,
`0
`26
`

`
`In addition to the LC pixel capacitance, most AMLCDs also have an auxiliary storage
`capacitance connected in parallel to the LC capacitance (as shown in Fig. 2.3). The
`storage capacitor uses a thin film dielectric with negligible leakage current and its
`capacitance value is voltage-independent. Therefore, the storage capacitor acts as a buffer
`to suppress the undesirable voltage dependence and potential leakage current in the LC
`capacitance. With a storage capacitor at each pixel it is easier to control the RMS
`voltage on the pixel and therefore its gray level.
`In Fig. 2.5 the generic, basic circuit for the switch at each pixel is shown. When one row is
`selected, all the switches on that row are turned ON and the data voltages are transferred to
`the pixel electrodes. Ideally, the ON resistance of the switch is zero and the OFF resistance is
`infinite. In practice, the requirements can be much relaxed. In a display with N rows and a
`refresh rate of 60 Hz, the frame time Tf~m e to refresh the entire display will be 16.6 msec and
`the line time T~n e to address one row will be T~me/N
`or less. In the case of an XGA display
`with 768 rows, this translates into a maximum line time of 21 btsec to select one row.
`The ON c u r r e n t
`of the switch should be sufficient to fully discharge the LC pixel
`capacitance and charge it to the opposite polarity voltage Von
`during the line time. This
`leads to
`
`2 (Cst"~- CLC ) Fog Ion > Wlin e (cid:12)9
`
`(2.4)
`
`::: :::: VLc(t) Vpeak Vrms Tframe ~t Figure 2.4: Voltage across LC versus time.
`
`RoB
`
`Roff Cic Cst I Figure 2.5: Basic switch configuration in an AMLCD pixel. 27
`
`Operating Principles of Active Matrix LCDs
`Ion
`

`
`The OFF current Iof f should be low enough to retain the charge on the pixel during the
`frame time
`
`(Cs,+ C~) AV
`
`(2.5)
`where AV is the maximum tolerable voltage loss from the pixel capacitance during the
`frame time.
`When realistic values for a 15-in. XGA display are substituted in Eqs. 2.4 and 2.5,
`Cs~ = 0.3 pF, CLc = 0.3 pF, and AV = 20 mV, we get
`
`(2.6)
`0.5 pA.
`In other words, the ON/OFF current ratio has to exceed six orders of magnitude. The
`current levels are quite low and can be achieved by transistors using thin film
`semiconductors such as amorphous silicon (a-Si).
`Since the pixels do not draw a current after being charged up during each refresh cycle,
`the power consumption in the LCD itself is low. Most of the power consumption in
`transmissive LCDs is usually in the backlight.
`Active matrix LCDs can be classified into direct-view displays and light valves (Fig. 2.6).
`Light valves or microdisplays are used for projection applications and as personal viewers
`and viewfinders. Microdisplays can be transmissive or reflective. Transmissive types use
`high-temperature poly-Si TFTs, while reflective types employ crystalline Si circuitry.
`Direct-view displays can be further categorized according to the type of switch used at
`on the market use a-Si or poly-Si thin film
`each pixel. The vast majority of AMLCDs
`Transistors (TFTs). Table 2.1 lists some of the pertinent properties of the various
`
`28
`
`Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays
`Io~<
`Wframe ,
`Ion > 1 gA and Io~<
`Figure 2.6: Classification of active matrix LCDs.
`

`
`Operating Principles of Active Matrix LCDs Table 2.1: Different types of switches for AMLCDs and their main applications Switching device a-Si TFT Mobility (cm2/Vsec) * 0.3-1 Highest processing temperature~ - 300~ (glass) Major applications Notebooks, flat panel monitors, LCD TVs High-T poly-Si TFT 100-300 -- 1000~ (quartz) Projection light valves, viewfinders Low-T poly-Si TFT 10-200 -- 500~ (glass) PDAs, notebooks, projection light valves, viewfinders Crystalline Si MOSFET 400 -- 1100~ (C-Si) Projection light valves, viewfinders Thin film diode < 300~ (glass) Handheld devices * Mobility determines the potential to integrate peripheral electronics. , Highest processing temperature determines substrate choice.
`
`switches, along with display applications in which they are common. The field effect
`mobility of the TFT (mostly a semiconductor material property) determines the
`feasibility of designing row and column drivers directly on the glass for a more integrated
`solution. The highest process temperature determines the type of substrate. For
`processing below 600~
`low-cost glass substrates can be used. If there is any process step
`exceeding 1000~
`as in high-temperature poly-Si LCDs, the substrate will be expensive
`quartz. High-temperature poly-Si TFTs are therefore used only in small displays for
`projection systems.
`Amorphous silicon TFTs have become dominant in large-area displays such as those used
`in notebook computers, flat panel desktop monitors, and LCD televisions. Low-
`temperature poly-Si-based LCDs are somewhat less common and are mostly applied in
`smaller devices, including mobile phones, PDAs, and projection light valves, where their
`higher processing cost is offset by integration of some of the peripheral electronics on the
`display glass.
`Thin film diodes with ON and OFF currents satisfying Eqs. 2.2 and 2.3 are suitable for
`LCDs as well. Thus far they have mostly been applied in displays with a limited number
`of gray levels, such as cell phones.
`
`Thin film transistors (TFTs) are cousins of the transistors used in semiconductor chips. In
`terms of switching speed and operating voltage, they are inferior to state-of-the-art MOS
`transistors in crystalline Si. However, they are quite adequate as a simple ON/OFF pixel
`
`2.3 The Thin Film Transistor
`29
`

`
`switch in AMLCDs with a 60-Hz refresh rate. In Fig. 2.7 the top view and cross section
`of a basic TFT are depicted. The TFT has three terminals: the gate, source, and drain.
`The gate is separated from the semiconductor film by a gate insulator layer, and the
`source and drain make contact to the semiconductor. One type of TFT, the N-channel
`TFT, operates similarly to a field-effect N-channel metal oxide semiconductor (NMOS)
`transistor in crystalline silicon. It is switched ON by applying a positive voltage on the
`gate. The insulator acts like a capacitor dielectric, so that in the semiconductor channel
`an opposing negative charge is induced (see Fig. 2.8). This negative charge creates a
`conductive channel for electrons flowing from the source to the drain. The magnitude of
`the current depends on the dimensions of the conductive channel (the channel length L
`on
`and the channel width W), on the capacitance of the gate insulator per unit area Cg,
`the properties of the semiconductor film, and on the applied gate voltage. When a
`negative voltage is applied to the gate, the channel is depleted of electrons and negligible
`current flows.
`
`Figure 2.8: Conductive channel formation and current flow in TFT. 30
`
`Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays
`

`
`The ON current Ias of the TFT can be described, in a first approximation, by the same
`equations used for traditional NMOS transistors in crystalline Si [1]"
`for VdsVg-- Vth
`
`(2.7)
`
`V,~) 2 for V~> Vg- V,h.
`
`(2.8)
`
`Here lit is the field effect mobility of the thin film semiconductor, a material property, and
`V,~ is the TFT threshold voltage, which depends on both the semiconductor and the gate
`insulator, and on their interface.
`Equations (2.7) and (2.8) describe, respectively, the linear and saturation regimes of
`operation for the TFT, as illustrated in Fig. 2.9.
`In the ON state of the TFT, when a data voltage is applied to the source, the drain with
`the LC load capacitance will charge up to the same voltage, thereby transferring the data
`
`Figure 2.9: Current-voltage characteristics of a-Si TFT. 31
`
`Operating Principles of Active Matrix LCDs
`I&- ~.~Cg w Vds(Vg-- Vth- 0.5Vds )
`Ias- I.tCg-~ Vas(Vg-
`

`
`signal from the data line to the pixel electrode. The TFT is turned OFF when applying a
`negative voltage to the gate. Since in the N-channel TFT the source and drain contacts
`block the injection of positive charge carriers (holes), there will be negligible current
`flow in the OFF state.
`Similar equations and considerations apply to P-channel TFTs, in which charge transport
`is by holes. They are switched ON by a negative gate voltage and switched off by a
`positive gate voltage.
`Many TFTs are of the staggered type, in which the source and the drain have an overlap
`region with the gate (as shown in Fig. 2.7). The overlap causes a parasitic capacitance
`that can have an impact on display performance unless the pixel is addressed by an
`appropriate drive scheme.
`The earliest TFTs for LCDs used CdSe semiconductor thin films. Since CdSe is not a
`standard material in the semiconductor industry, special deposition and etching processes
`needed to be developed to build CdSe-based TFT LCDs. Although CdSe TFTs showed
`good performance in AMLCDS, they have never been able to overcome the drawbacks
`of not being mainstream. They are now relegated to small research efforts.
`
`Silicon is a very familiar material in the semiconductor industry and is therefore the
`preferred choice for use in AMLCDs. Thin films of silicon on glass are, however, inferior
`in quality to crystalline silicon. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.10, where the atomic structure
`of c-Si, p-Si and a-Si are schematically compared. In c-Si, the Si atoms are all four-fold
`coordinated and constitute a perfect crystal lattice with long-range order of the Si atom
`
`o = Si atom (cid:12)9 = H atom Grain boundary Mobility > 500 Mobility = 10-400 Mobility = 0.3-1 (A) (g) (C) Figure 2.10: Atomic structure of crystalline silicon (A), poly-crystalline silicon (B) and amorphous silicon (C). 32
`
`Active Matrix LiquM Crystal Displays
`2.4 Thin Film Silicon Properties
`

`
`positions. As a result, electrons and holes can flow with high velocities V e and vp
`an electric field E is applied:
`
`when
`
`and vp- lapE.
`
`(2.9)
`
`The values of the mobilities }.l e for electrons and gp exceed 500 cm2/Vsec in crystalline
`silicon.
`Low-temperature poly-Si thin films are first deposited as amorphous films, and then
`crystallized by laser annealing or thermal annealing. The annealing temperature cannot
`exceed 600~ when low-cost glass substrates are used. Sometimes seed materials such as
`Ni or preferential crystal growth from certain locations are used. The quality of poly-Si
`varies greatly depending on deposition and crystallization methods, but invariably it has
`grain boundaries that reduce the mobility by creating barriers for the flow of electrons
`and holes (see Fig. 2.10B). Some improvement can be obtained by passivating the grain
`boundaries with hydrogen in a post-hydrogenation step. The grain size is important in
`determining TFT characteristics. Preferably, to maximize the mobility, there are no grain
`boundaries in the channel area of the TFT. A number of techniques have been
`developed to crystallize the silicon films, including excimer laser annealing (ELA),
`solid phase crystallization (SPC), sequential lateral solidification (SLS), and metal-
`induced lateral crystallization (MILC). They result in TFTs with mobilities ranging from
`10-400 cm2/Vsec, the electron mobility often being higher than the hole mobility.
`The concept of hydrogenation is important in amorphous silicon as well. The structure of
`amorphous silicon is more irregular, so that there is no long-range order and no crystal
`lattice. Nonetheless, since amorphous silicon films are deposited from the decomposition
`of Sill 4 gas, 5-10% hydrogen is automatically built in during film growth. The hydrogen
`acts to terminate dangling bonds in the loose a-Si network (Fig. 2.10C) and is essential
`to improve its electronic properties. The type of a-Si used in TFT LCDs is therefore often
`referred to as hydrogenated amorphous silicon or a-Si:H. The electron field effect
`mobility is only 0.3-1 cm2/Vsec in a-Si, but is adequate for pixel switches in TFT LCDs.
`The hole mobility is much lower, so that practical p-type TFTs are impossible in a-Si.
`Hydrogenated amorphous silicon, as used in LCDs, is a reddish-colored thin film with a
`thickness between 30 and 200 nm. It can be readily deposited on large glass surfaces by
`plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Some of its properties are listed in Table
`2.2. It has a band gap of 1.7 eV, (considerably larger than crystalline and poly-crystalline
`Si [1.1 eV]), a very low dark conductivity, and high photoconductivity. The low dark
`conductivity makes it relatively easy to obtain a low OFF current in the TFT. The
`high photoconductivity is an undesirable property of a-Si, since it can cause unwanted
`photo-leakage currents in the TFT. To prevent photo-leakage, the a-Si channel in TFTs
`
`33
`
`Operating Principles of Active Matrix LCDs
`Ve= ~e E
`

`
`Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays Table 2,2: Some properties of a-Si films a-Si film property Typical value Unit Hydrogen content 5-10 % Dark conductivity intrinsic film 10-1~ -9 (.Qcm) -1 Dark conductivity n + doped film 10-2-10 -1 (Q.cm) -1 Photoconductivity in sunlight 10 -4 (.Qcm) -1 Energy gap 1.75 eV Field effect mobility 0.3-1.0 cm2/Vsec
`
`is sandwiched between opaque layers to shield it as completely as possible from both
`ambient light and backlight in the LCD.
`Amorphous silicon can be easily