(19) United States
`(12) Patent Application Publication (10) Pub. No.: US 2017/0207492 A1
`
` ADAMS et al. (43) Pub. Date: Jul. 20, 2017
`
`
`US 20170207492A1
`
`(54) ELECTRODE MATERIALS FOR
`RECHARGEABLE ZINC CELLS AND
`BATTERIES PRODUCED THEREFROM
`
`(71) ApplieantsrBrian D- ADAMS, Mitchell (CA);
`Dipan KUNDU, Kitchener (CA)
`.
`Inventors: Brian D. ADAMS, Mitchell (CA);
`Dipan KUNDU, Kitchener (CA)
`
`(72)
`
`(21) Appl. No.: 15/461,849
`
`(22)
`
`Filed:
`
`M311 173 2017
`
`Related U-S- Application Data
`(63) Continuation of application No. PCT/CA2016/
`050613, filed on May 31, 2016.
`.
`.
`.
`.
`Prov1s1onal application NO- 62/230502: filed on Jun.
`8, 2015
`
`(60)
`
`_
`_
`_
`_
`Publication Class1ficat10n
`
`(51)
`
`Int. Cl.
`H01M 10/36
`H01M 4/66
`
`(2006.01)
`(2006.01)
`
`(2006.01)
`(2006.01)
`
`H01M 4/62
`H01M 4/485
`(52) US, Cl,
`CPC ........... H01M 10/36 (2013.01); H01M 4/485
`(201301); H01M 4/661 (2013.01); H01M
`4/663 (2013.01); H01M 4/623 (2013.01);
`H01M 4/625 (2013.01); H01M 2300/0002
`(201301)
`
`(57)
`
`ABSTRACT
`
`The present disclosure discloses a rechargeable Zn battery
`based on layered/tunnelled structure vanadium/molybde-
`num oxides, with/without the presence of neutral/cationic/
`anionic species and/or water molecules inserted into the
`interlayers/tunhelsa of haho/mierorlaltiele morphology as
`robust materials for high rate and long term reversible Zn2+
`ion intercalation storage at the positive electrode, that are
`coupled with a metallic Zn negative electrode, and an
`aqueous electrolyte. The positive electrode may include
`electronically conducting additives and one or more binders
`along with the Zn2+ intercalation material:
`the negative
`electrode is Zn metal in any form; the aqueous electrolyte is
`of pH 1 to 9 and contains a soluble zinc salt in a concen-
`tration range from 0.01 to 10 molar.
`
`“30
`
`
`
`uw Exhibit 1013, pg. 1
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 1
`
`

`

`Patent Application Publication
`
`Jul. 20, 2017 Sheet 1 of 14
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`US 2017/0207492 A1
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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 2
`
`

`

`Patent Application Publication
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`Jul. 20, 2017 Sheet 2 of 14
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`
`Figure “£8
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`uw Exhibit 1013, pg. 3
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 3
`
`

`

`Patent Application Publication
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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 4
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`

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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 5
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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 7
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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 9
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`

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`Patent Application Publication
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`Jul. 20, 2017 Sheet 14 of 14
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`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 15
`
`

`

`US 2017/0207492 A1
`
`Jul. 20, 2017
`
`ELECTRODE MATERIALS FOR
`RECHARGEABLE ZINC CELLS AND
`BATTERIES PRODUCED THEREFROM
`
`FIELD
`
`[0001] This disclosure relates generally to batteries, and,
`more specifically to zinc ion batteries involving zinc inter-
`calation positive electrode materials, zinc metal based nega-
`tive electrodes in any form, and an aqueous electrolyte
`containing zinc salt and batteries using these positive elec-
`trode materials.
`
`BACKGROUND
`
`[0002] Given the looming concerns of climate change,
`sustainable energy resources such as solar and wind have
`entered the global spotlight, triggering the search for reli-
`able, low cost electrochemical energy storage. Among the
`various options, lithium ion batteries are currently the most
`attractive candidates due to their high energy density, and
`foothold in the marketplace. However, many factors (cost,
`safety, and lifetime) will likely limit their large scale appli-
`cations. and dictate against
`their use in stationary grid
`storage where low cost and durability are more of a concern
`than weight. What is needed is a high energy density battery
`that is rechargeable, cheap, safe, and easy to manufacture
`and dispose of or recycle. Aqueous batteries (water based
`electrolytes) are therefore attracting tremendous attention.
`Their high conductivity (up to 1 Siemens (S) cm‘l) com-
`pared to the non-aqueous electrolytes (0.001 to 0.01 S cm'l)
`also favour high rate capabilities suitable for emerging
`applications.
`
`[0003] The use of metallic negative electrodes is a means
`to achieve high energy density and ease of battery assembly
`(hence lower cost). There is a trade-off between the reduc-
`tion potential of a metal, E°, (low values give higher cell
`voltages) and safety. Metals with low reduction potentials
`(e.g., lithium, potassium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium)
`react with water to produce hydrogen. However, zinc is
`stable in water and for that reason it has been used as the
`
`negative electrode in primary aqueous battery systems.
`Moreover, zinc has (a) high abundance and large production
`which makes it inexpensive; (b) non-toxicity; (c) low redox
`potential (—0.76 V vs. standard hydrogen electrode (SHE))
`compared to other negative electrode materials used in
`aqueous batteries: and (d) stability in water due to a high
`overpotential for hydrogen evolution. The latter renders a
`large voltage window (~2 V) for aqueous Zinc-ion batteries
`(AZIBs) employing a metallic Zn negative electrode.
`
`[0004] Vanadium and molybdenum are low cost metals
`possessing a range of oxidation states (V: +2 to +5; Mo: +2
`to +6), which allows for multiple redox and hence large
`specific capacities for vanadium or molybdenum based
`electrode materials. Layered VnOm (vanadium oxides: V205,
`V308, V4011) and MoOy (molybdenum oxides) that are
`made of two dimensional sheet structures were the subject of
`much past investigation for non-aqueous and aqueous alkali
`(Li and Na) ion batteries. The additional presence of inter-
`layer neutral molecules, ions, metal ions and/or water of
`hydration in such layered oxides act as pillars, providing
`structural
`stability during long term charge discharge
`cycling.
`
`SUMMARY
`
`[0005] The present disclosure discloses a rechargeable Zn
`battery based on layered/tunnelled structure vanadium/mo-
`lybdenum oxides, with/without
`the presence of neutral/
`cationic/anionic species and/or water molecules inserted
`into the interlayers/tunnels, of nano/microparticle morphol-
`ogy as robust materials for high rate and long term reversible
`Zn2+ ion intercalation storage at the positive electrode, that
`are coupled with a metallic Zn negative electrode. and an
`aqueous electrolyte. The positive electrode may include
`electronically conducting additives and one or more binders
`along with the Zn2+ intercalation material;
`the negative
`electrode is Zn metal in any form; the aqueous electrolyte is
`may have a pH in a range of l to 9 and contains a soluble
`zinc salt which may be in a concentration range from 0.01
`to 10 molar.
`
`[0006] Thus, disclosed herein is a zinc ion battery, com-
`prising:
`having
`compartment
`electrode
`positive
`a
`[0007]
`enclosed therein an intercalation layered positive elec-
`trode material MXVzOSnHzO, wherein x is in a range
`from 0.05 to l, n is in a range from 0 to 2, wherein M
`is any one or combination of a d-block metal
`ion,
`f-block metal ion and alkaline earth ion, the metal M
`ion being in a +2 to +4 valence state, and wherein said
`V205 is a layered crystal structure having the metal
`ions M pillared between the layers. and waters of
`hydration coordinated to the metal ions M;
`[0008]
`a negative
`electrode
`compartment having
`enclosed therein a negative electrode for storing Zinc;
`[0009]
`a separator electrically insulating and permeable
`to zinc ions separating the positive and negative com-
`partments; and
`[0010]
`an electrolyte comprising water and having a salt
`of zinc dissolved therein.
`
`[0011] There is also disclosed herein a zinc ion battery,
`comprising:
`having
`compartment
`electrode
`positive
`a
`[0012]
`enclosed therein and intercalated layered positive elec-
`trode material MXV3O7.nH20, wherein x is in a range
`from 0.05 to l, n is greater than 0 and less than 2,
`wherein M is any one or combination of a d-block
`metal ion, f-block metal ion and alkaline earth ion, the
`metal M ion being in a +2 to +4 valence state, and
`wherein said V307 is a layered crystal structure having
`the metal
`ions M pillared between the layers, and
`waters of hydration coordinated to the metal ions M
`and/or hydrogen bonded to the layers;
`[0013]
`a negative
`electrode
`compartment having
`enclosed therein a negative electrode for storing Zinc;
`[0014]
`a separator electrically insulating and permeable
`to zinc ions separating the positive and negative com-
`partments; and
`[0015]
`an electrolyte comprising water and having a salt
`of zinc dissolved therein.
`
`[0016] There is also disclosed a zinc ion battery; compris-
`ing:
`having
`compartment
`electrode
`positive
`a
`[0017]
`enclosed therein an intercalated layered positive elec-
`trode material MXMoOynHZO, wherein x is in a range
`from 0 to l, y is in a range from 2 to 3, n is in a range
`from 0 to 2, wherein M is any one or combination of a
`d-block metal ion, f-block metal ion and alkaline earth
`ion, the metal M ion being in a +2 to +4 valence state,
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 16
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 16
`
`

`

`US 2017/0207492 A1
`
`Jul. 20, 2017
`
`and wherein said MoOy has a layer or tunnel crystal
`structure, and the metal ions M, if present, pillared
`between the layers, and waters of hydration coordi-
`nated to the metal ions M pillared between the layers;
`[0018]
`a negative
`electrode
`compartment having
`enclosed therein a negative electrode for storing zinc; a
`separator electrically insulating and permeable to zinc
`ions separating the positive and negative compart-
`ments; and
`[0019]
`an electrolyte comprising water and having a salt
`of zinc dissolved therein.
`
`[0020] A further understanding of the functional and
`advantageous aspects of the disclosure can be realized by
`reference to the following detailed description and drawings.
`
`BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
`
`[0021] Embodiments of the disclosure will now be
`described, by way of example only, with reference to the
`drawings, in which:
`[0022]
`FIG. 1A shows a conceptual scheme of a zinc-ion
`battery constructed in accordance with the present disclo-
`sure.
`
`FIG. 1B is a cross section of a zinc-ion battery.
`[0023]
`l
`FIG. 2 shows linear sweep voltammograms at
`[0024]
`mV/s on Pt, Ti, and Zn in l M Nast4 showing the onset of
`the hydrogen evolution reaction.
`[0025]
`FIG. 3A shows a linear sweep voltammogram at l
`mV/s in l M NaZSO4 showing the hydrogen evolution
`reaction for zinc and titanium. The dotted voltammogram
`shows zinc deposition on a zinc disk electrode in l M ZnSO4
`for comparison.
`[0026]
`FIG. 3B shows a linear sweep voltammogram at l
`mV/s in l M NaZSO4 showing the hydrogen evolution
`reaction for stainless steel and titanium.
`
`FIG. 4A shows cyclic voltammograms at 5 mV/s
`[0027]
`on a Ti disk electrode.
`
`FIG. 4B shows cyclic voltammograms at 5 mV/s
`[0028]
`on stainless steel rod in l M ZnSO4.
`[0029]
`FIG. 5 shows linear sweep voltammograms on a
`zinc disk electrode (cathodic sweep) and a stainless steel
`disk electrode (anodic sweep) at l mV/s in l M ZnSO4. The
`cathodic sweep on zinc shows zinc deposition and the
`anodic sweep on the stainless steel shows the oxygen
`evolution reaction.
`
`[0030] These two electrochemical reactions dictate the
`potential operating window for aqueous zinc-ion batteries
`using this electrolyte.
`[0031]
`FIG. 6A shows Rietveld refinement of H2V3OS.
`Data points (circles); calculated profile (line); difference
`profile (dotted line); Bragg positions (vertical lines) are as
`indicated. Refined lattice parameters are a:l6.87 A, b:9.
`332 (3) A, c:3.63 A, and G:B:Y:90°. Inset shows the
`layered structure projected in the ac plane. VOx polyhedra
`are shown in black.
`
`FIG. 6B shows the Rietveld refinement of ZnO_
`[0032]
`stzOanzO. Data points
`(circles); calculated profile
`(black line); difference profile (blue line) are as indicated.
`Refined parameters are a:10.75 A, b:7.77 A, c:10.42 A,
`(x:9l.26°, [3:90.3l°, and y:88.66°. The VO,C and ZnO,C
`polyhedra are shown in black and grey, respectively.
`[0033]
`FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C and 7D show a typical SEM
`image of the H2V3O8 (7A and 7B) and Zn0_25VzOS.nHZO
`(7C and 7D) nanofibers.
`
`FIGS. 8A and 8B show galvanostatic polarization
`[0034]
`curves for the (8A) H2V3O8 and (8B) Zn0_25VzOS.nHZO
`electrodes at various current rates. Here, 1C is defined as 350
`mA g‘1 for H2V3O8 and 300 mA g'1 for Zn0_25VZOS.nHZO.
`[0035]
`FIGS. 9A, 9B, 9C and 9D show specific capacity
`and coulombic efficiency of the H2V3O8 (9A and 9B) and
`Zn0_25VZOS_nHzO (9C and 9D) as a function of cycling at 4C
`(9A and 9C) and 8C (9B and 9D) current rates.
`[0036]
`FIGS. 10A and 10B show rate capability of the
`(9A) H2V3O8 and (9B) Zn0_25VzOS.nHzO cells studied
`under variable current loading as a function of cycling. The
`corresponding coulombic efficiencies are also shown.
`[0037]
`FIG. 11 shows the tradeolf between energy and
`power density (Ragone plot) for reversible Zn2+ storage in
`Zn0_25VzOS.nHzO, H2V3OS, MnOZ, and Zn3[Fe(CN)6]2.
`
`DETAILED DESCRIPTION
`
`[0038] Various embodiments and aspects of the disclosure
`will be described with reference to details discussed below.
`
`The following description and drawings are illustrative of
`the disclosure and are not to be construed as limiting the
`disclosure. Numerous specific details are described to pro-
`vide a thorough understanding of various embodiments of
`the present disclosure. However, in certain instances, well-
`known or conventional details are not described in order to
`
`provide a concise discussion of embodiments of the present
`disclosure.
`
`[0039] The Figures are not to scale and some features may
`be exaggerated or minimized to show details of particular
`elements while related elements may have been eliminated
`to prevent obscuring novel aspects. Therefore, specific struc-
`tural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be
`
`interpreted as limiting but merely as a basis for the claims
`and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the
`art to variously employ the present disclosure.
`[0040] As used herein, the term “about”, when used in
`conjunction with ranges of dimensions, temperatures, con-
`centrations or other physical properties or characteristics is
`meant to cover slight variations that may exist in the upper
`and lower limits of the ranges of dimensions so as to not
`exclude embodiments where on average most of the dimen-
`sions are satisfied but where statistically dimensions may
`exist outside this region.
`[0041] As used herein, the phrase “a negative electrode for
`storing zinc” means that the negative electrode can incor-
`porate and release zinc reversibly by electrodeposition/
`dissolution (plating/stripping) of elemental zinc from/to the
`electrolyte, by alloying/dealloying reaction, or the negative
`electrode comprises a material that can store zinc by any one
`or combination of intercalation, conversion, and capacitive
`storage (adsorption/deadsorption of Zn2+ ions).
`[0042]
`FIG. 1A shows a conceptual scheme of a zinc-ion
`battery shown generally at 10, which includes an anode 12,
`and an intercalated layered positive electrode material 14
`separated by an electrolyte 16, with FIG. 1A showing
`diagrammatically the operation of the battery 10, namely
`during the charging cycle Zn ions are attracted to the
`negative electrode 12, and during the discharge cycle Zn
`ions are attracted to the intercalated positive electrode
`material 14 into which they intercalate. Electrons flow
`through the external circuit connecting the negative and
`positive electrodes which are used to do work.
`[0043]
`FIG. 1B is a cross section of an actual zinc-ion
`battery showing the positive electrode 14 contained in a
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 17
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 17
`
`

`

`US 2017/0207492 A1
`
`Jul. 20, 2017
`
`positive electrode compartment 20, the negative electrode
`12 contained in a negative electrode compartment 22, and
`the electrolyte 16 contained in an electrolyte compartment
`24 in which a separator 28 which is electrically insulating
`and permeable to zinc ions separating the positive and
`negative compartments is located. Non-limiting examples of
`separator 28 include organic polymers (polyethylene (PE),
`polypropylene (PP), poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE), poly
`(vinyl chloride) (PVC)), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
`nylon, organic polymer-inorganic oxide, silica glass fiber,
`porous silica or alumina ceramic membranes, cellulose,
`cellulose-ceramic oxide, wood, or any combination of these.
`[0044] The present disclosure provides several embodi-
`ments of the intercalated layered positive electrode material
`14. In an embodiment the intercalation layered positive
`electrode material 14 may be MXVzOSnHZO, where x is in
`a range from 0.05 to l, n is in a range from 0 to 2, and M
`is any one or combination of a d-block metal ion, f-block
`metal ion and alkaline earth ion with the metal M ion being
`in a +2 to +4 valence state. The V205 has a layered crystal
`structure having the metal
`ions M pillared between the
`layers, and waters of hydration coordinated to the metal ions
`M. The number of waters of hydration n in some embodi-
`ments may be greater than 0 and less than 1. Some of the
`waters of hydration may be hydrogen bonded to the layers.
`[0045]
`In a preferred embodiment x:0.25, and n:l.
`[0046]
`In another embodiment,
`the intercalated layered
`positive electrode material 14 may be MXV3O7.nHZO
`wherein x is in a range from 0.05 to l, n is greater than 0 and
`less than 2. M is any one or combination of a d-block metal
`ion, f-block metal ion and alkaline earth ion, with the metal
`M ion being in a +2 to +4 valence state. The V307 is a
`layered crystal structure having the metal ions M pillared
`between the layers, and waters of hydration coordinated to
`the metal ions M and/or hydrogen bonded to the layers. In
`an embodiment n is greater than 0 and less than 1.
`[0047]
`In a preferred embodiment x:0.05, and n:l.
`[0048]
`In another embodiment,
`the intercalated layered
`positive electrode material 14 may be MXMoOynHzO, in
`which x is in a range from 0 to l. y is in a range from 2 to
`3, and n is in a range from 0 to 2. M is any one or
`combination of a d-block metal ion, f-block metal ion and
`alkaline earth ion, with the metal M ion being in a +2 to +4
`valence state. The MoOy has a layer or tunnel crystal
`structure, and the metal
`ions M, if present, are pillared
`between the layers, and waters of hydration are coordinated
`to the metal ions M pillared between the layers.
`[0049]
`In some embodiments n is greater than 0 and less
`than 2. In some embodiments the waters of hydration are
`hydrogen bonded to the layers.
`[0050]
`In a preferred embodiment x:0.25, y:3 and n:0.
`[0051] The electrolyte 16 is an aqueous based electrolyte
`and contains a salt of zinc dissolved therein. Non-limiting
`examples of the zinc salt comprises any one or combination
`of zinc sulfate, zinc acetate, zinc citrate, zinc iodide, zinc
`chloride, zinc perchlorate, zinc nitrate, zinc phosphate, zinc
`triflate, zinc bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, zinc tetra-
`fluoroborate, and zinc bromide to mention a few.
`[0052] The dissolved zinc is present in an amount in the
`liquid in a range from about 0.01 to about 10 molar (M), and
`preferably is present in a range from about 0.1 to about 4 M.
`[0053] The electrolyte may have a pH in a range between
`1 and about 8 but preferably between 4 and about 8 and more
`preferably 4 to 7. The electrolyte is an aqueous based
`
`electrolyte and may be just water containing the dissolved
`salt of Zinc, or additional solvents may be included, for
`example alcohols. nitriles, carbonates, ethers, sulfoxides,
`glycols, esters, and amines. Typically, the zinc salt may
`comprise anyone or combination of zinc sulfate, zinc
`acetate. zinc citrate, zinc iodide, zinc chloride, zinc perchlo-
`rate, zinc nitrate. zinc phosphate, zinc triflate, zinc bis
`(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, zinc tetrafluoroborate, and
`zinc bromide in 0.1 to 4 M concentration of Zn2+ with or
`without the nonaqueous component and with or without
`additional
`ionically-conductive salts such as quaternary
`ammonium salts or alkali metal salts.
`
`[0054] The negative electrode may be made of a solid
`sheet, mesh, or rod of Zinc, or it may be comprised of a zinc
`layer formed on a current collector. When the battery is
`assembled with metallic zinc contained in the negative
`electrode, the battery is typically referred to as a zinc battery.
`This is opposed to a zinc ion battery in which the negative
`electrode in its initial state does not contain any Zinc. The
`zinc layer may be a thin sheet of zinc or an alloy, or powder
`zinc bonded adhered to the surface of the negative electrode
`facing into the negative electrode compartment. The zinc
`may be a constituent of a formulation which is adhered to the
`surface of the current collector. Non-limiting examples of
`zinc alloys that may be used include alloys of zinc with lead.
`vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, cad-
`mium, tungsten, bismuth, tin, indium, antimony, copper, and
`titanium.
`
`[0055] The negative current collector is an electrically
`conductive support for active zinc which may be comprised
`of any one or combination of carbon, boron, lead, vanadium,
`chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, cadmium, tung-
`sten, bismuth, tin, indium, antimony. copper, titanium, and
`zinc metal. A feature of the negative electrode is that it
`comprises a material that can store elemental zinc by any
`one or combination of intercalation, conversion, and capaci-
`tive storage. In a conversion process, the electrochemical
`reaction of the negative electrode material with zinc leads to
`its decomposition into two or more products. In capacitive
`storage the an ions are stored at the surface of the negative
`electrode material by a non-faradic process.
`[0056] The intercalated layered positive electrode material
`may have different morphologies. The intercalation layered
`positive electrode material 14 has a nanostructured morphol-
`ogy. Preferably the average particle size is less than 1000 nm
`in a direction of Zn ion transport through the particle, and
`more preferably less than 500 nm in a direction of Zn ion
`transport through the particle. Non-limiting morphologies
`include nanowires, fibers, wires, cubes, platelets, spheres,
`and uneven morphology. They may be simple particles. The
`particles may have a mean size in a range from about 5 nm
`to about 50 pm.
`[0057] The particles may be coated with electrically con-
`ducting material, in which
`[0058]
`the electrically conducting material is any one or
`combination of carbon powder and conducting poly-
`mer. The particles may be embedded in an electrically
`conducting matrix and the electrically conducting
`matrix may comprise any one or combination of carbon
`and conducting polymer, and including a binder. The
`binder may be any one or combination of styrene
`butadiene rubber (SBR), sodium carboxymethylcellu-
`lose (CMC), polyvinyl acetate (PVAc), polyethylene
`glycol (PEG), polybutyl acrylate (PBA), polyurethane,
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 18
`
`UW Exhibit 1013, pg. 18
`
`

`

`US 2017/0207492 A1
`
`Jul. 20, 2017
`
`acrylonitrile, polypyrrole, polyaniline, polytetrafluoro-
`ethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), per-
`fluorosulfonic acid (PFSA), and poly(3,4-ethylenedi-
`oxythiophene) (PEDOT).
`[0059] The zinc ion battery materials disclosed herein will
`now be illustrated by the following non-limiting examples.
`
`EXAMPLES
`
`[0060] Two vanadium oxide based compounds with lay-
`ered crystal structures and in ultralong one-dimensional
`morphology exhibiting as robust host materials for high rate
`and long term reversible an ion storage in aqueous elec-
`trolyte were produced. Vanadium is a cheap and environ-
`mentally benign metal possessing a range of oxidation states
`(+2 to +5), which allows for multiple redox and hence large
`specific capacities for vanadium based electrode materials.
`Particularly, oxides of vanadium e.g., V205 which is non-
`toxic and produced in large quantities, displays numerous
`crystal and compositional chemistries for reversible metal
`ion storage. Layered MXVnOm oxides (M:metal
`ion) of
`compositions such as V205, V308, V4011 that are made of
`two dimensional sheet structures have been the subject of
`intense investigation for both non-aqueous and aqueous
`alkali (Li and Na) ion batteries. The presence of interlayer
`metal ions and/or water of hydration act as pillars, providing
`structural
`stability during long term charge discharge
`cycling.
`and
`are H2V3O8
`[0061] Embodying such qualities
`ZnXVZOSnHzO, which we have synthesized in nanofiber
`morphology by a simple and rapid microwave hydrothermal
`treatment of V205, without using any toxic or corrosive
`chemicals, and converted to freestanding film electrodes by
`adopting a cheaper and greener water based electrode fab-
`rication process. Nanomorphology and compact film struc-
`ture allows for facile release of strain resulting upon Zn2+
`cycling, shorter ion dilfusion paths, better interaction of
`carbon additives with the active material and robust con-
`
`ductive wiringifacilitating high specific capacities of ~300
`mAh g"1 and long term cyclabilities up to 1000 cycles at
`high coulombic efliciency using fast current rates.
`
`Experimental Methods
`
`Synthesis of H2V3O8 and ZnXVzO5
`[0062]
`[0063] Microwave solvothermal method developed over
`last two decades are now often used to prepare positive
`electrode materials for lithium ion batteries. In this work, we
`have modified a time consuming and energy expensive
`hydrothermal approach used in the synthesis of single crys-
`talline H2V3O8 nanobelt to a rapid and scalable microwave
`hydrothermal method for the synthesis of highly homoge-
`neous H2V3O8 and anVzOSnHzO nanofibers. In a typical
`procedure, 3 to 4 millimoles (mmol) V205 was dispersed in
`15:1 water/ethanol (v) mixture with or without stoichiomet-
`ric amount of zinc acetate (for ZnXVzOSnHZO) and trans-
`ferred to a sealed Teflon vessel. The vessels were fitted to a
`
`rotor equipped with temperature and pressure sensors. The
`rotor containing the vessels was then placed in a rotating
`platform for uniform heating in an Anton Parr microwave
`synthesis system (Synthos 3000). The system temperature
`was raised to 180° C. in 10 minutes and maintained for 60
`
`temperature was maintained
`to 90 minutes. The preset
`automatically by continuous adjustment of the applied
`power (limited to 800 Watts). The as-synthesized product
`
`was thoroughly washed with distilled water followed by a
`small amount of iso-propanol and dried at 60° C. for 24 h.
`
`Characterization Methods
`
`Powder X-ray diffraction was performed on a
`[0064]
`Bruker D8-Advance powder diffractometer equipped with
`Vantec-l detector, using Cu-Kot radiation (K:1.5405 A) in
`the range from 5° to 80° (20) at a step size of 0.025° using
`Bragg-Brentano geometry. X-ray data refinement was car-
`ried out by conventional Rietveld refinement method using
`the Bruker-AXS TOPAS 4.2 software (Bruker-AXS, 2008).
`The background, scale factor, zero point, lattice parameters,
`atomic positions and coeflicients for the peak shape function
`were iteratively refined until convergence was achieved. The
`morphologies of the samples were examined by field-emis-
`sion scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, LEO 1530)
`equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
`(EDX) attachment.
`
`Battery Cycling
`
`For electrochemical performance evaluation, a
`[0065]
`freestanding film type electrode was fabricated by a facile
`green approach. In a typical process, nanofibers were mixed
`with conducting nanocarbon Super P® and water based
`composite binder carboxymethylcellulose (CMG) and sty-
`rene-butadiene rubber(SBR) (CMC/SBR:2:1) in 7022723
`weight ratio. The mixture was dispersed in small amount of
`water by using an ultrasonic mixer to obtain a stable
`homogeneous ink which was filtered through Durapore®
`DVPP 0.65 pm filtration membrane. The water soluble CMC
`facilitates the dispersion of hydrophobic carbon particles
`into water and enables its intimate mixing with the nanofi-
`bers. Whereas SBR with high binding abilities for a small
`amount provides adhesion and electrode flexibility. The
`binder molecules not involved in this anchoring and adhe-
`sion get washed away during filtration and that way elec-
`trode films with very small binder content is achieved. After
`drying at 60° C. the composite film automatically came olf
`which was then punched into 1 cm2 electrode coins. The
`electrodes were further dried at 180° C. for 1 h (H7V3OS) or
`60° C. for 12 h (for ZnXVZOSnHZO). The electrochemical
`properties were investigated in PFA based Swagelok® type
`cell using 1 M ZnSO4 in water as the electrolyte and titanium
`or stainless steel rods as the current collector. The HZVO8 or
`ZnXVzOSnHZO and zinc foil served as the positive and
`negative electrodes,
`respectively. Galvanostatic cycling
`studies were performed using multichannel biologic VMP3
`potenti