The Complete
`FreeBSD
`
`Documentation from the Source
`
`'v.-
`
`Greg Lehey
`
`O REILLY
`COMMUNITY PRESS
`
`:*9
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`Google - Exhibit 1028. cover
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`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD®
`
`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (i)
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`

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`Google — Exhibit 1028, page (ii)
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (ii)
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`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`FOURTH EDITION
`
`Documentation from the Source
`
`Greg Lehey
`
`O’REILLY
`COMMUNITYPRESS
`Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Koln • Sebastopol • Taipei • Tokyo
`
`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (iii)
`
`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD®, Fourth Edition
`by Greg Lehey {grog@frccbsd.or$
`Copyright © 2003, 2002, 1999, 1997, 1996 by Greg Lehey. This material may be distributed only subject
`to the terms and conditions set forth in the Open Publication License, Version 1.0.8 or later. The latest
`version is presently available at http://www.opencontent.org/openpub/. Distribution of substantively
`modified versions of this document is prohibited without the explicit permission of the copyright holder.
`Distribution of the work or derivative of the work in any standard (paper) book form is prohibited unless
`prior permission is obtained from the copyright holder.
`Parts of this book are derived from the FreeBSD online handbook, which is subject to the BSD
`documentation license reproduced on page 6.
`Significant portions copyright © 1995, 1994, 1993 FreeBSD Inc.
`Portions copyright © 1995, 1994 The XFree86 Project, Inc.
`Printed in the United States of America.
`Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
`O’Reilly Media, Inc. books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online
`editions are also available for most titles (safari.oreilly.com). For more information, contact our corporate/
`institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or corporate@oreilly.com.
`
`Editor: Andy Oram
`
`Production Editor: Linley Dolby
`Cover Designer: Edie Freedman
`
`Printing History:
`May 2003:
`
`Fourth Edition.
`
`FreeBSD® is currently a registered trademark of FreeBSD Inc. and Wind River Systems Inc. Changes are
`planned; see http://www.FreeBSD.org/for up-to-date information. UNIX® is currently a registered
`trademark of The Open Group. For more information, see
`http://www.rdg.opengroup.org/public/tech/unix/tradenrark.html. As used in this book, UNIX refers to the
`operating system development that predated the registration of the UNIX trademark. Nutshell Handbook,
`the O’Reilly logo, and the Community Press logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Many
`of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as ,
`trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly Media, Inc. was aware of a
`trademark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.
`The Berkeley daemon on the cover was included with kind permission of M. Kirk McKusick.
`While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no
`responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
`herein.
`
`RepKover,,
`
`This book uses RepKovei\ a durable and flexible lay-flat binding.
`
`ISBN: 0-596-00516-4
`[M]
`
`[4/05]
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (iv)
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`

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`Table of Contents
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`V
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`Foreword
`
`Preface
`The fourth edition.................
`Conventions used in this book
`Describing the keyboard........
`Acknowledgments.................
`Book reviewers.....................
`How this book was written.....
`
`1: Introduction
`How to use this book....................... .....
`FreeBSD features..................................
`Licensing conditions.............................
`A little history .......................................
`The end of the UNIX wars.....................
`Other free UNIX-like operating systems
`FreeBSD and Linux...............................
`FreeBSD system documentation...........
`Reading online documentation................
`The online manual.................................
`GNU info............................................
`Other documentation on FreeBSD.........
`
`

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`vi
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`Table of Contents
`
`The FreeBSD community.............
`Mailing lists..................................
`Unsubscribing from the mailing lists
`User groups.................................
`Reporting bugs.............................
`The Berkeley daemon.............. .
`
`2: Before you install. ..
`Using old hardware....................
`Device drivers............................
`PC Hardware..............................
`How the system detects hardware
`Configuring ISA cards................
`PCMCIA, PC Card and CardBus.
`PC Card and CardBus cards.........
`Universal Serial Bus.,.................
`Disks..........................................
`Disk data layout..........................
`PC BIOS and disks.....................
`Disk partitioning........................
`Block and character devices.........
`Making the file systems..............
`Disk size limitations...................
`Display hardware.......................
`The hardware..............................
`The keyboard.............................
`The mouse.................................
`The display board and monitor.....
`Laptop hardware........................
`Compaq/Digital Alpha machines.
`The CD-ROM distribution..........
`Installation CD-ROM..................
`Live File System CD-ROM..........
`CVS Repository CD-ROM...........
`The Ports Collection CD-ROMs....
`
`3: Quick installation
`Making things easy for yourself....
`FreeBSD on a disk with free space
`FreeBSD shared with Microsoft....
`Configuring XFree86...................
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`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`4: Shared OS installation
`Separate disks...................................
`Sharing a disk...................................
`Sharing with Linux or another BSD
`Repartitioning with FIPS.................
`Repartitioning—an example.............
`
`5: Installing FreeBSD
`Installing on the Intel i386 architecture
`Booting to sysinstall............................ .,
`Kinds of installation..............................
`Setting installation options....................
`Partitioning the disk..............................
`Shared partitions....................................
`Defining file systems.............................
`What partitions?.....................................
`How much swap space?.........................
`File systems on shared disks...................
`Selecting distributions...........................
`Selecting the installation medium........
`Performing the installation....................
`Installing on an Alpha system...............
`Upgrading an old version of FreeBSD..
`How to uninstall FreeBSD....................
`If things go wrong.................................
`Problems with sysinstall.........................
`Problems with CD-ROM installation......
`Can’t boot...... .......................................
`Incorrect boot installation.......................
`Geometry problems...............................
`System hangs during boot......................
`System boots, but doesn’t run correctly ...
`Root file system fills up..........................
`Panic......................................................
`Fixing a broken installation....................
`Alternative installation methods...........
`Preparing boot floppies..........................
`Booting from floppy..............................
`Installing via ftp.....................................
`Installing via ftp.....................................
`Installing via NFS..................................
`Installing from a Microsoft partition.......
`Creating floppies for a floppy installation.
`
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`viii
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`6: Post-installation configuration
`Installing additional software.....................................
`Instant workstation......................................................
`Changing the default shell for root..............................
`Adding users................................................................
`Setting the root password.............................................
`Time zone.....................................................................
`Network services.........................................................
`Setting up network interfaces.......................................
`Other network options................................................
`Startup preferences......................................................
`Configuring the mouse...............................................
`Configuring X..............................................................
`Desktop configuration..................................................
`Additional X configuration..........................................
`Rebooting the new system..........................................
`
`7: The tools of the trade
`Users and groups..........................................
`Gaining access..............................................
`The KDE desktop.........................................
`The Desktop Menu.......................................
`The fvwm2 window manager......................
`Starting fvwm2............................................
`Changing the X display...............................
`Selecting pixel depth.....................................
`Getting a shell..............................................
`Shell basics..................................................
`Options........................................................
`Shell parameters...........................................
`Fields that can contain spaces...................... .
`Files and file names......................................
`File names and extensions............................
`Relative paths.............................................. .
`Globbing characters......................................
`Input and output...........................................
`Environment variables................................ .
`Command line editing..................................
`Command history and other editing functions
`Shell startup files..........................................
`Changing your shell......................................
`Differences from Microsoft.........................
`Slashes: backward and forward.....................
`
`Table of Contents
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`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`Tab characters..................
`Carriage control characters
`The Emacs editor..............
`Stopping the system........
`
`8: Taking control
`Users and groups..........................
`Choosing a user name...................
`Adding users................................
`The super user..............................
`Becoming super user...................
`Adding or changing passwords....
`Processes.......................................
`What processes do I have running?
`What processes are running?........
`Daemons........................................
`cron.............................................
`Processes in FreeBSD Release 5...
`top
`Stopping processes........ ....................
`Timekeeping.......................................
`The TZ environment variable..............
`Keeping the correct time....................
`Log files...............................................
`Multiple processor support................
`PC Card devices.................................
`devd: The device daemon....................
`Removing PC Card devices................
`Alternate PC Card code.......................
`Configuring PC Card devices at startup
`Emulating other systems....................
`Emulators and simulators....................
`Emulating Linux.................................
`Running the Linux emulator...............
`Linux procfs......................................
`Problems executing Linux binaries......
`Emulating SCO UNIX.......................
`Emulating Microsoft Windows.........
`Accessing Microsoft files....................
`
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`x
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`Table of Contents
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`9: The Ports Collection
`How to install a package.................................
`Building a port.................................................
`Installing ports during system installation...........
`Installing ports from the first CD-ROM..............
`Installing ports from the live file system CD-ROM
`Getting new ports............................................
`What’s in that port?............ ............................
`Getting the source archive................................
`Building the port.............................................
`Port dependencies............................................
`Package documentation...................................
`Getting binary-only software...........................
`Maintaining ports............................................
`Upgrading ports...............................................
`Using portupgrade...........................................
`Controlling installed ports...............................
`Submitting a new port.....................................
`
`10: File systems and devices
`File permissions...........................................
`Mandatory Access Control............................
`Links.............................................................
`Directory hierarchy......................................
`Standard directories......................................
`File system types..........................................
`Soft updates..................................................
`Snapshots....................................................
`Mounting file systems...................................
`Mounting files as file systems.........................
`Unmounting file systems................................
`FreeBSD devices..........................................
`Overview of FreeBSD devices........................
`Virtual terminals...........................................
`Pseudo-terminals..........................................
`
`11: Disks
`Adding a hard disk.........
`Disk hardware installation
`Formatting the disk.........
`Using sysinstall.............
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`

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`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`Doing it the hard way................
`Creating a partition table............
`Labelling the disk......................
`Disklabel......................... ........
`Problems running disklabel.........
`Creating file systems.................
`Mounting the Pile systems...........
`Moving file systems..................
`Recovering from disk data errors
`
`12: The Vinum Volume Manager
`Vinum objects..................................
`Mapping disk space to plexes............
`Data integrity..................................
`Which plex organization?.................
`Creating Vinum drives....................
`Starting Vinum................................
`Configuring Vinum..........................
`The configuration file.......................
`Creating a file system.......................
`Increased resilience: mirroring...........
`Adding plexes to an existing volume...
`Adding subdisks to existing plexes.....
`Optimizing performance..................
`Resilience and performance..............
`Vinum configuration database..........
`Installing FreeBSD on Vinum..........
`Recovering from drive failures.........
`Failed boot disk...............................
`Migrating Vinum to a new machine..
`Things you shouldn’t do with Vinum
`
`13: Writing CD-Rs
`Creating an ISO-9660 image......
`Testing the CD-R........................
`Burning the CD-R......................
`Burning a CD-R on an ATA burner
`Burning a CD-R on a SCSI burner ,
`Copying CD-ROMs....................
`
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`xii
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`Table of Contents
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`14: Tapes, backups and floppy disks
`Backing up your data .
`What backup medium?
`Tape devices..............
`Backup software........
`tar
`Using floppy disks under FreeBSD
`Formatting a floppy........................
`File systems on floppy....................
`Microsoft file systems.....................
`Other uses of floppies.....................
`Accessing Microsoft floppies...........
`
`15: Printers
`Printer configuration.....
`Testing the printer.........
`Configuring /etc/printcap
`Remote printing............
`Spooler filters................
`Starting the spooler......
`Testing the spooler.......
`Troubleshooting............
`Using the spooler...........
`Removing print jobs.....
`PostScript......................
`Viewing with gv............
`Printing with ghostscript
`Which driver?...............
`PDF ........................
`
`16: Networks and the Internet
`Network layering.............................
`The link layer...................................
`The network layer............................
`The transport layer..........................
`Port assignment and Internet services
`Network connections.......................
`The physical network connection....
`Ethernet............................................
`How Ethernet works........................
`Finding Ethernet addresses...............
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`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`What systems are on that Ethernet?
`Address classes............................
`Unroutable addresses....................
`Wireless LANs..............................
`How wireless networks coexist.....
`Encryption....................................
`The reference network..................
`
`17: Configuring the local network
`Network configuration with sysinstall........................
`Manual network configuration.....................................
`Describing your network...............................................
`Checking the interface configuration.............................
`The configuration files..................................................
`Automatic configuration with DHCP..........................
`DHCP client.................................................................
`DHCP server.................................................................
`Starting dhcpd...............................................................
`Configuring PC Card networking cards......................
`Detaching network cards...............................................
`Setting up wireless networking....................................
`What we can do now......................................................
`Routing...........................................................................
`Adding routes automatically..........................................
`Adding routes manually................................................
`ISP’s route setup............................................................
`Looking at the routing tables........................................
`Flags............................................................................
`Packet forwarding.........................................................
`Configuration summary................................................
`
`18: Connecting to the Internet
`The physical connection.......................
`Establishing yourself on the Internet...
`Which domain name?..........................
`Preparing for registration.......................
`Registering a domain name...................
`Getting IP addresses.............................
`Choosing an Internet Service Provider
`Who’s that ISP?.....................................
`Questions to ask an ISP........................ .
`Making the connection.........................
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`xiv
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`Table of Contents
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`19: Serial communications
`325
`326
`Terminology..........................................................
`Asynchronous and synchronous communication
`326
`Asynchronous communication...............................
`326
`Synchronous communication.................................
`327
`Serial ports............................................................
`328
`Connecting to the port...........................................
`328
`When can I send data?..........................................
`330
`Modems.................................................................
`330
`Modem speeds......................................................
`331
`Data compression..................................................
`331
`332
`The link speed.......................................................
`Dialing out............................................................
`333
`Modem commands...............................................
`333
`Dialing out manually............................................
`335
`Dialing out—an example.......................................
`336
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`Dialing in...................................................
`
`20: Configuring PPP
`Quick setup......................................
`How PPP works..............................
`The interfaces................................
`Dialing...........................................
`Negotiation.....................................
`Who throws the first stone?.............
`Authentication................................
`Which IP addresses on the link?......
`The net mask for the link.................
`Static and dynamic addresses...........
`Setting a default route.....................
`Autodial.........................................
`The information you need to know
`Setting up user PPP........................
`Setting up user PPP: the details.......
`Negotiation.....................................
`Requesting LQR.............................
`Authentication...............................
`Dynamic IP configuration...............
`Running user PPP...........................
`How long do we stay connected?....
`Automating the process...................
`Actions on connect and disconnect...
`If things go wrong..........................
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (xiv)
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`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`Setting up kernel PPP.................
`Authentication...........................
`Dialing......................................
`Who throws the first stone?..........
`Dynamic IP configuration............
`Running kernel PPP....................
`Automating the process...............
`Timeout parameters....................
`Configuration summary...............
`Actions on connect and disconnect.
`Things that can go wrong............
`Problems establishing a connection
`
`21: The Domain Name Service
`Domains and zones...........................
`Zones..............................................
`Setting up a name server...................
`Passive DNS usage............................
`Name server on a standalone system ...
`Name server on an end-user network..
`The SOA record................................
`The A records...................................
`The NS records.................. ..............
`Nicknames........................................
`The MX records................................
`The HINFO records...........................
`Putting it all together.........................
`Reverse lookup..................................
`The distant view: the outside world......
`The named.conf file...........................
`Slave name servers............................
`The next level down: delegating zones
`china.example.org.............................
`example.org with delegation............... .
`Messages from named........................
`Upgrading a Version 4 configuration ...
`Looking up DNS information............
`Checking DNS for correctness...........
`DNS security...................................
`
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`xvi
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`Table of Contents
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`22: Firewalls, IP aliasing and proxies
`Security and firewalls.......................................................
`ipfw: defining access rules.................................................
`Actions...........................................................................
`Writing rules....................................................................
`Configuration files............................................................
`Trying it out....................................................................
`IP aliasing........................................................................
`IP aliasing software..........................................................
`natd................................................................................
`Proxy servers...................................................................
`Installing squid.................................................................
`Starting squid..................................................................
`Browser proxy configuration............................................
`Setting proxy information for ftp.......................................
`
`23: Network debugging
`How to approach network problems
`Link layer problems.......................
`Network layer problems.................
`traceroute.......................................
`High packet loss.............................
`tcpdump.........................................
`Packet loss revisited........................
`Transport and application layers.....
`Ethereal..................................
`
`24: Basic network access: clients
`The World Wide Web
`Web browsers..........
`ssh
`Access without a password........
`Creating and distributing keys......
`Authenticating automatically.......
`Setting up X to use ssh...............
`ssh tunnels.................................
`Tunneling X..............................
`Other uses of tunnels.................
`Configuring ssh.........................
`Summary of files in "/.ssh...........
`Troubleshooting ssh connections
`
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (xvi)
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`

`
`The Complete TreeDSD
`
`telnet.......................................
`Secure telnet.........................
`Using telnet for other services
`Copying files.........................
`scp
`ftp
`Specifying file names as URIs
`Other ftp commands..............
`mget.......................................
`prompt...................................
`reget.......................................
`user........................................
`sftp
`rsync........................................................
`Copying directory hierarchies.................
`Using an rsync server............................
`The Network File System......................
`NFS client...............................................
`Mounting remote file systems.................
`Where to mount NFS file systems...........
`Mounting NFS file systems automatically
`NFS strangenesses..................................
`No devices.............................................
`Just one file system.................................
`
`25: Basic network access: servers
`Running servers from inetd...
`Configuring ftpd....................
`anonymous ftp......................
`Restricting access and logging
`Running sshd.........................
`rsyncd.....................................
`Setting up a web server........
`Configuring apache................
`The configuration file.............
`httpd.conf.............................
`Virtual hosts..........................
`Log file format......................
`Access control.......................
`Apache modules....................
`Proxy web servers.................
`Caching.................................
`Running apache.....................
`NFS server......................
`
`xvii
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (xvii)
`
`

`
`xviii
`
`Table of Contents
`
`/etc/exports......................................
`Samba...............................................
`Installing the Samba software..........
`srnbd and nmbd: the Samba daemons
`The configuration file.......................
`Setting passwords............................
`Testing the installation.....................
`Displaying Samba status..................
`
`26: Electronic mail: clients
`Mail formats..........................
`Mail user agents....................
`mail......................................
`Other MUAs.........................
`Files, folders or directories?..
`mutt......................................
`Creating a new message.......
`Replying to a message.........
`Using folders.........................
`Deleting messages.................
`Tagging messages..................
`Configuring mutt...................
`Colours in mutt.....................
`Mail aliases............................
`Mail headers..........................
`How to send and reply to mail
`Using MIME attachments ......
`
`27: Electronic mail: servers
`How mail gets delivered...................
`MTA files..... ...................................
`Who gets the mail?...........................
`Postfix................................................
`Configuring postfix...........................
`Host and domain names....................
`Relaying mail....................................
`Aliases revisited...............................
`Rejecting spam..................................
`Rejecting known spam domains........
`Rejecting sites without reverse lookup
`Rejecting listed sites.........................
`Recognizing spoofed messages.........
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`Google - Exhibit 1028, page (xviii)
`
`

`
`The Complete FreeBSD
`
`Sender restrictions: summary........
`Running postfix at boot time.......
`Talking to the MTA......................
`Downloading mail from your ISP
`POP: the Post Office Protocol.......
`popper: the server.........................
`fetchmail: the client......... ............
`Mailing lists: majordomo.............
`
`28: XFree86 in depth
`X configuration: the theory...................
`How TVs and monitors work..................
`How monitors differ from TVs...............
`How to fry your monitor........................
`The CRT controller.................................
`The XF86Config mode line....................
`XFBOConfig............................................
`The server layout....................................
`The Files section....................................
`The ServerFlags section.........................
`The Module section................................
`The InputDevice section.........................
`The Monitor section..............................
`The Device section.................................
`The Screen section.................................
`Multiple monitors and servers...............
`Multiple servers.....................................
`X in the network.....................................
`Multiple monitors across multiple servers
`Stopping X............................................
`
`29: Starting and stopping the system
`Starting the system...........................
`Things you can do before booting....
`What are you going to boot?...........
`Loader commands............................
`loader.conf........................................
`Loading other modules at boot time ...
`Automatic kid load...........................
`Running the kernel...........................
`Single-user mode..............................
`Password protecting single-user mode
`
`xix
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