`
`
`
`BEFORE THE PATENT TRIAL AND APPEAL BOARD
`
`
`
`IBG LLC,
`INTERACTIVE BROKERS LLC,
`TRADESTATION GROUP, INC., and
`TRADESTATION SECURITIES, INC.,
`
`Petitioners,
`
`v.
`
`TRADING TECHNOLOGIES INTERNATIONAL, INC.
`
`
`Patent Owner
`
`
`
`CBM2016-00087
`Patent No. 7,412,416 B2
`
`
`
`DECLARATION OF ERIC J. GOULD BEAR
`IN SUPPORT OF PATENT OWNER’S RESPONSE
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`
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`
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`TABLE OF CONTENTS
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`
`
`
`VI.
`
`INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 3
`I.
`SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 3
`II.
`BACKGROUND AND QUALIFICATIONS .................................................................... 4
`III.
`IV. MATERIALS REVIEWED .............................................................................................. 10
`V.
`GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE TECHNOLOGY ..................................................... 10
`A.
`Inventions Necessarily Improve Existing Technologies ....................................... 10
`B.
`The Science of Human-Computer Interaction ...................................................... 11
`C.
`GUIs Often Solve Technical Problems. ................................................................ 16
`D.
`Computer-Readable Medium Claims are Not Directed at Propagated Signals. ... 22
`CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 23
`
`
`
`EXHIBIT 1: BEAR CV
`EXHIBIT 2: TUFTE VISUAL AND STATISTICAL THINKING
`EXHIBIT 3: MACKENZIE AND BUXTON ON FITTS’ LAW
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`2
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`I.
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`INTRODUCTION
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`Case CBM2016-00087
`U.S. Patent 7,412,416 B2
`
`
`1.
`
`I have been retained by Trading Technologies International, Inc. (“TT”
`
`or “Patent Owner”), in this action. My credentials are described in my CV, which
`
`is attached hereto as Exhibit 1. I offer this report on the technology at issue in U.S.
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`Patent No. 7,412,416 B2 (the “’416 Patent”) in response to the Covered Business
`
`Patent Review matter CBM2016-00087 instituted and filed by IBG LLC, Interactive
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`Brokers LLC, (“IB”) TradeStation Group, Inc. and TradeStation Securities, Inc.
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`(“TS”, “TradeStation”) (collectively “Petitioners”).
`
`2.
`
`I have been asked by TT’s counsel to explain whether and how
`
`graphical user interface design and development is technology and whether the
`
`graphical user interface inventions claimed in the ’416 Patent are technical solutions
`
`to technical problems. Further, I have been asked to assess whether the claims read
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`on all ways of displaying and updating market information and placing a trade order.
`
`I am being compensated at the rate of $480 per hour. My compensation is not
`
`related to the outcome of this case.
`
`II.
`
`SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS
`
`3.
`
`As a result of performing the analysis described herein and measured
`
`against the standards outlined below in Section V, I have determined that, in my
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`opinion, the ’416 Patent claims a new and improved graphical user interface. Herein,
`
`I explain how graphical user interfaces are technologies for human interaction
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`designed and purpose-built to address problems of speed, accuracy, efficiency and
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`usability – all technical problems. Since graphical user interfaces are inherently
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`technology, improvements to graphical user interfaces are necessarily directed to
`
`technology; solving
`
`technical problems with
`
`technical solutions.
`
` Such
`
`improvements are not directed to a business method or practice. And since they
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`explicitly improve upon known computer technologies, they are neither merely
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`implemented using known computer technology nor directed to routine and
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`conventional computing components or steps. My opinion is supported by the
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`evidence in the patent specification, figures and claims.
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`III. BACKGROUND AND QUALIFICATIONS
`
`4.
`
`I am the first named inventor on at least 80 United States patent
`
`applications that list me as an inventor. These are cataloged in my CV. To date, at
`
`least 70 of those applications have issued as U.S. patents. I am also the first named
`
`inventor on a number of international patents and patent applications.1
`
`5.
`
`Inventions of mine for which patents have been issued include virtual
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`force-feedback user interfaces, methods of navigating poly-hierarchical information,
`
`
`1 Some of my patents and applications identify me as “Gould” while others identify
`me as “Bear” because I legally changed my name from Eric Justin Gould to Eric
`Justin Gould Bear after adopting my first child from China in 1999.
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`4
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`management of playlists that include both owned and un-owned songs, real-time
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`communications architectures, auxiliary visual displays for personal computers,
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`auxiliary processing by sleeping computing devices, methods for reducing parallax
`
`in computer camera systems, methods for using telephony controls on personal
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`computers, methods for navigating content using media transport controls, and
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`methods for unifying audio control on personal computers. More recent applications
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`claim inventions relating to symbolic and schematic displays of protocol-specific
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`information, user interfaces for visualizing data backup and recovery, and handheld
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`multi-channel interactive environments.
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`6.
`
`By the time I was 12, I was programming computers in BASIC using
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`Tandy TRS-80 and Apple personal computers. In 1984, I formed Element Systems
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`to provide a consulting framework for my interface design and code production
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`skills. From 1984 to 1993, I designed and engineered software for clients in utilizing
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`a variety of coding languages, including BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, 68000 Assembly
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`Language and HyperCard / SuperCard. Clients included Aetna Life Insurance,
`
`Kaleida Labs (an Apple/IBM joint venture) and SoftWriters, for whom I wrote code
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`to perform network administration of remote computer systems in 1991. Other
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`clients are listed in my CV.
`
`7.
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`In 1986, two years after Apple released the Macintosh computer, I
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`became an Apple Certified Developer.
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`In 1988 and 1989, I designed and developed a significant portion of the
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`8.
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`code for Aetna Life Insurance's first graphical user interface. The transformation of
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`Aetna's financial information system from a command line terminal to a modern
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`point and click Macintosh application (e.g. with mouse, radio buttons, check boxes
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`and clickable text entry fields) marked my first experience leading groups of
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`engineers in the design of a multi-million dollar user experience (“UX”) program.
`
`9.
`
`In 1991, I received a Bachelor of Arts from Wesleyan University in
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`Cognitive Science, an interdisciplinary degree that combined the studies of
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`Psychology, Philosophy, Linguistics and Computer Science. Example coursework
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`included biological neurophysiology, artificial intelligence programming in LISP
`
`and research in human perception of audio/visual phenomena as presented and
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`measured by computing machines. The Psychology Department at Wesleyan was
`
`also a client, for whom I designed and engineered test tools in Lightspeed Pascal and
`
`SuperCard for millisecond timing of visual search tasks in perception experiments.
`
`10.
`
`In the summer of 1992, I interned at Apple, Inc. (then Apple Computer,
`
`Inc.) in the Advanced Technology Group’s Human Interface Group where I worked
`
`on designing and programming user interfaces for an auditory-only display device.
`
`I joined ACM and SigCHI (Special interest group on Computer Human Interaction)
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`at that time and am now a lifetime member. I am also a lifetime member of CPSR
`
`(Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility), which I joined in 1992.
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`In 1993, I received a Masters of Professional Studies in Interactive
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`11.
`
`Telecommunications from New York University’s Tisch School of the Arts. On full
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`scholarship, I designed and engineered various hardware, software and interactive
`
`video experiences. New York University (with Bell Atlantic) was one of my clients
`
`in 1992, for which I developed software to decode telephone touch-tones. This code
`
`enabled Manhattan Cable TV viewers to control 3D graphical environments on
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`broadcast television in real-time using their telephone handsets.
`
`12. From 1994 to 1999, I held faculty positions at San Francisco State
`
`University (Multimedia Studies Program) and The University of Texas at Austin
`
`(Department of Radio-TV-Film). I taught graduate and undergraduate courses in
`
`multimedia design as well as advanced interaction and interface design, including
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`mentoring students in the development of experimental hardware/software UX.
`
`During this same period, I wrote the user interface design column for InterActivity
`
`Magazine. A list of these articles and other publications is included in my CV.
`
`13.
`
`I have also presented papers and given talks regularly on topics relating
`
`to inventorship, UX design and interactive media. I have made presentations at
`
`conferences of ACM SigCHI, SXSW, the International Consumer Electronics Show
`
`(CES), Digital Hollywood and the TV of Tomorrow Show. I have also served as an
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`independent judge of conference paper submissions and regularly serve on the
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`SXSW Advisory Board. A list of my presentations and talks is provided in my CV.
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`I founded MONKEYmedia in San Francisco in 1994 to provide the
`
`14.
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`desktop computing, new media and consumer electronics industries a design and
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`technology resource focused specifically on human-computer interaction. Clients
`
`included Interval Research Corporation, Texas Instruments, Sega of America,
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`Sprint, Viacom, Microsoft / WebTV. MONKEYmedia earned industry recognition
`
`for my work, including a CLIO, an Award of Excellence from Communication Arts,
`
`Best Use of Audio at South by Southwest (SXSW) and other awards.
`
`15. From 2001 through 2005, I held executive leadership positions at
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`Microsoft Corporation and Yahoo! Inc. At each company, I directed teams of
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`interaction designers, visual designers, user researchers, ethnographers and
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`prototype engineers responsible for crafting the UX of various product lines. These
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`programs included Windows Tablet PC Edition, the Windows Hardware Innovation
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`Group, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! Messenger, Yahoo! Photos, Yahoo! Personals,
`
`Yahoo!/SBC (now AT&T) set-top experience and Yahoo! Mobile applications.
`
`Descriptions of my work for those corporations are detailed in my CV.
`
`16. Beginning in 2005, I have provided executive consulting services in
`
`corporate user experience strategy and design innovation through Chief Experience
`
`Officer, Inc. In this capacity, I have lead the UX strategy and design of computer
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`mice, universal remote controls, mobile phones, stock trading applications, legal
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`research tools, home automation systems and medical devices for companies
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`including Logitech, Tektronix, Motorola, Charles Schwab, Thomson Reuters and
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`others mentioned in my CV. My work on Logitech’s premium mice and remote
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`controls contributed to winning a number of industry awards, including multiple
`
`2007 CES Technology & Innovation Awards, a 2008 CES Best of Innovations
`
`Award, a 2009 CES Best of Innovations Category Winner Award, and a 2010 CES
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`Innovations Award.
`
`17. Of particular relevance to this matter is my work on Charles Schwab’s
`
`active stock trading application “Street Smart Edge.” On the project, I led a team of
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`user interface and interaction designers in studying trader habits and usability
`
`challenges and writing functional and technical specifications for Charles Schwab’s
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`engineering team to implement that addressed those usability challenges.
`
`18.
`
`In 2012, I designed and wrote an iPad application entitled Walk-in
`
`Theater in collaboration with videographer Rachel Strickland and musician Jim
`
`McKee. Walk-in Theater is an experiment with peripatetic perspective, engaging
`
`participants' proprioceptors and spatial memory to orient them as they navigate
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`among multiple video streams in a 3D sound field.
`
`19.
`
`In 2013, I joined Austin’s Capital Factory start-up incubator as a partner
`
`and angel investor, where I serve as an advisor to executives in intellectual property
`
`strategy and the design and development of new hardware, software and services. I
`
`am currently employed by CURB, Inc. – an early-stage startup that manufactures
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`energy monitoring and control systems – as its Chief Experience Officer.
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`20. My experience designing and evaluating user interfaces over the last
`
`25+ years, including the optimization of human performance through the use of
`
`computing technology and automated feedback of various forms and modalities, as
`
`well as my background hiring and managing teams of user experience professionals,
`
`position me as an expert in the design and development of graphical user interfaces.
`
`IV. MATERIALS REVIEWED
`
`21.
`
`In performing my analysis, I have reviewed, among other things, the
`
`‘416 patent, Judge Coleman’s opinion in the related CQG proceedings (05-cv-4811)
`
`holding that TT’s ’132 and ’304 Patents are patent eligible, the Federal Circuit
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`opinion affirming Judge Coleman’s opinion and the patent eligibility of the ’132 and
`
`’304 patents, portions of declarations by Kendyl A. Román in support of the petition
`
`for CBM review of the ’416 Patent, the petition for CBM review, and the PTAB’s
`
`decision to institute the corresponding CBM review.
`
`V. GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE TECHNOLOGY
`
`A. Inventions Necessarily Improve Existing Technologies
`
`22. No new technology can exist in a vacuum wholly disconnected from
`
`the past. Whether built using metal, wood, plastic or pixels on a computer screen,
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`all innovations must – to some extent – be made from a combination of known
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`components. Pixels are building block materials used to construct software
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`interfaces just like plastic is a building block material used to construct hardware
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`controls. Whether any given combination is obvious and unanticipated is a
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`reasonable question to be raised, but it is my understanding that the present CBM
`
`review is not concerned with either anticipation or obviousness issues. I have not
`
`studied the prior art at length and do not have an opinion at this time with regards to
`
`§102 and §103 validity.
`
`23. There are myriad user interface visualization and interaction techniques
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`known to be employable when creating new user experiences. The existence of these
`
`techniques, aka technologies, is akin to the existence of raw physical building
`
`materials. Just like building a house, certain technologies lend themselves to certain
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`types of use. Similarly, certain technologies draw designers of software systems into
`
`using them in particular combinations. Simply knowing that various technologies
`
`exist that can be used for a variety of purposes is not enough to motivate, inspire or
`
`enable someone to combine such techniques in new ways. Nonetheless, I believe it
`
`important to establish that human-computer perception and/or human-computer
`
`interaction innovations should not be treated differently from innovations based on
`
`physical technologies not built using software toolkits.
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`B. The Science of Human-Computer Interaction
`
`24.
`
`I have been asked to opine about the field of the invention of the ’416
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`Patent, which is the science of human-computer interaction (“HCI”), also known as
`
`user experience (“UX”) design, as applied in the field of GUIs for electronic trading.
`
`25. The discipline of user experience grew out of ergonomics and what was
`
`once called man-machine interface (“MMI”). It is generally concerned with how to
`
`make machines reliably responsive to human expression while being easy to use and
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`unobtrusive. The user interface (“UI”) or graphical user interface (“GUI”) is the
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`boundary or bridge between a person and a machine. It includes the physical
`
`hardware and logical software, capturing concrete measurable human input and
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`outputting processed information for human perception. To be clear, the invention
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`neither claims nor improves the underlying process of trading, but rather offers a
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`better GUI for human interaction within the existing trading model. In other words,
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`trading, itself, is not at issue; but specific display and interaction techniques for
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`trading with speed, accuracy and a minimum of error are at issue.
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`26. Various other terms have been used over the past decades of the
`
`development of the science as it has matured. Technical aspects of the science
`
`include human
`
`factors engineering
`
`(“HFE”), ergonomics, ergonometrics,
`
`biomechanics, industrial design, cognitive engineering, user research, design
`
`research, usability engineering, user-centered design (“UCD”),
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`interaction
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`engineering, interaction design (“IxD”), information architecture (“IA”), and
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`product design.
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`27. Don Norman is generally recognized as a “founding father” of the
`
`modern UX discipline. He is a former VP and User Experience Architect at Apple
`
`Inc. and a professor of Cognitive Science and Psychology at UCSD. He taught
`
`practitioners in the industry many core concepts. Of note and of particular relevance
`
`to the ’416 Patent are: (1) affordances, which define what is possible for people to
`
`do at any given time; and (2) feedback, which let people know what can be done,
`
`what they are doing or what they just did. How specific affordances and feedback
`
`are designed and engineered depends heavily on the circumstances of use, and there
`
`is an international community of user experience professionals that have been
`
`meeting and settings standards for over 30 years. The Association of Computing
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`Machines’ special interest group on computer human interaction (SigCHI), has been
`
`hosting the premier international conference on human factors in computing systems
`
`since 1982. And the International Standards Organization (ISO) has adopted
`
`standards in “ergonomic principles in the design of work systems” that date back to
`
`1981 (ISO 6485:1981) and standards in “human-centered design processes for
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`interactive systems” (ISO 13407:1999E) dating to the time of invention of the ’416
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`Patent (i.e., 1999). These standards were developed because the design of a GUI is
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`analogous to the crafting of a physical workspace or cockpit – and incorporates many
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`of the same human factors engineering variables, such as reachability, readability,
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`glance-ability, performance, speed, and risk of error. These standards may be used
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`to create new and innovative GUIs that are broadly used and adapted.
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`28. By the time of invention of the ’416 Patent, many corporations had
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`established a track record of investing heavily into user experience research and
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`design to craft and improve the engineering of their own products and the industry’s
`
`technical competency, generally. A few entities recognized for t heir technical
`
`contributions to the field in the late 1990s include Xerox PARC, Apple, IBM,
`
`Microsoft, Philips, Sony, AT&T, HP, SAP, SunSoft, Intel, Disney and the National
`
`Science Foundation. By the time of the invention, there were many leading
`
`universities with advanced degrees in one or more UX disciplines. Notable
`
`programs turning out graduates who made a significant inventive impact on the field
`
`by the late 1990s included those at Stanford, M.I.T., Carnegie Mellon, N.Y.U.,
`
`University of Maryland, University of Toronto, University of Michigan, UCSD,
`
`SFSU, Georgia Tech, George Washington University, Bowling Green, Delft
`
`University and the Royal College of Art.
`
`29.
`
`I have been informed that Petitioners’ expert Kendyl A. Román has
`
`previously opined that a college education is not needed to design user interfaces.
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`This may be true of the design of casual user interfaces, such as simplistic websites,
`
`but not the design of mission critical applications. Commodities trading is high
`
`stakes and requires a trained and nuanced understanding of human factors variables
`
`to interpret the complexity of usability issues and appreciate the value of technical
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`solutions to specific perception and interaction behavior challenges. This is
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`especially true of professional derivatives traders that conduct such trading for their
`
`profession. Many well -funded entities – including software providers, stock
`
`exchanges, brokers, futures commission merchants (FCMs) and trading groups –
`
`knew the value of technically sophisticated user interface experts and invested
`
`heavily in GUI technology development as part of their efforts to innovate in the
`
`space.
`
`30. The user experience success metrics used today are the same as they
`
`were at the time of invention of the ’416 Patent. Great user experiences occur to
`
`end-users as simple and easy to use, quick and efficient, seamless and effortless.
`
`Getting the user experience right is also essential for mission critical tasks, where
`
`people’s lives or life savings are at stake. A suboptimal GUI can contribute to
`
`mistakes that cause irreversible damage (e.g. losses of life, losses of wealth,
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`destruction of property).
`
`31. But to accomplish excellent results depends on the science of user
`
`experience design. There are three general domains of design involved in crafting
`
`user experiences: information design, interaction design, and interface design.
`
`Information design is about the specific techniques for organizing content.
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`Interaction design is about what people functionally do with their bodies and their
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`hands, such as hovering over a cell and clicking a mouse button. And interface
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`design proper is about the sensory aspects of the experience. How are things
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`technically changing on screen? How do people know what they can do? How do
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`they know what they are doing and what they just did?
`
`32. Due to the complexities and nuances technical design of GUIs,
`
`following a scientific method is necessary to invent successful GUIs that ultimately
`
`appear to end users as magically intuitive and, thus, at risk of feeling obvious in
`
`hindsight. This process normally involves: (a) listening to users and understanding
`
`their technical needs, (b) inventing and designing novel technical solutions, (c)
`
`validating the efficacy of those novel technical solutions through usability testing,
`
`(d)
`
`iteratively refining
`
`those novel
`
`technical solutions, and (e) clearly
`
`communicating to engineers the specific technical details of the resultant visual
`
`interfaces and human-computer interaction techniques so they can be accurately
`
`constructed to operate as designed. Using such well-weathered objective methods
`
`is what makes interactions between people and machines predictable, measureable
`
`and reproducible.
`
`C. GUIs Often Solve Technical Problems.
`
`33. Graphical user interfaces often solve technical problems, such as
`
`problems of speed, precision, and usability with prior GUI tools. These are classic
`
`technical problems. Solving an additional business problem does not negate the
`
`solution of technological problems. All innovative tools that solve technical
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`problems also solve problems in their field of use. For example, a flight instrument
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`embodied in a GUI can address both a technical problem (usability) and a problem
`
`in its field (flight safety). The problems of speed, accuracy, and usability and their
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`solutions are necessarily rooted in computer technology and the operation of prior
`
`art GUIs, not in a business practice.
`
`34. Reducing task time is a technical challenge well established in the field
`
`of user interface and interaction design. It is also a well-established technical
`
`problem in the field of physical devices and man machine interfaces. Also,
`
`increasing task accuracy is a technical challenge well established in the field of user
`
`interface and interaction design – in both hardware and software realms. As in the
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`physical world, motivations to solve such technical challenges generally do not yield
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`obvious solutions, and that even the most intellectually logical solutions do not
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`necessarily correlate with the most intuitive or efficacious solutions. For that reason,
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`the science of user experience depends heavily on usability research and real-world
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`validation testing to ascertain technical efficacy and to direct designers back to the
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`drawing board to craft better performing and frequently novel and non-obvious
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`solutions.
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`35. The design of dynamic visual displays and the human-computer
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`interactions dictated by the specific technical aspects of said visual displays is a well-
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`established science with a rich history, requiring a nuanced appreciation of human
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`performance variables and technical design characteristics to afford implementation
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`excellence. Furthermore, such nuance often depends on the field of application,
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`especially when it comes to mission critical activities.
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`36.
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`It is my understanding that the Petitioners argue that employment of
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`known structures in any makeup cannot create new functionality. This position is
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`nonsensical in the context of software applications. Changing the makeup of known
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`GUI elements (structures) on a computer screen often dictates a dramatic change in
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`the functionality of the GUI. And because the makeup of any set of user interface
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`structures – whether involving numerical display regions, lists, cells, graphical
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`buttons, or what have you – establishes the specific meaning and technical
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`capabilities of that user interface, this cannot, by definition, avoid being deemed
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`technology.
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`37. For the avoidance of doubt about the technical nature of visual design,
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`itself, it is worth calling attention to the canonical works of visualization expert,
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`Edward Tufte. Tufte provides ample evidence that (1) the crafting of effective visual
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`displays is deeply technical, that (2) getting such displays “right” can be a matter of
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`life and death, and that (3) getting it “right” in mission critical contexts has proven
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`time and again to be non-obvious. Attached hereto as Exhibit 2 is an excerpt from
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`Tufte’s 1997 book, “Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and
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`Narrative,” in which these points are made clear through varying representations of
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`the same data to arrive at dramatically differing outcomes. These teachings illustrate
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`visual analyses of the Cholera Epidemic in London in 1854 and the flawed decision
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`to launch the Challenger Space Shuttle in 1986. Visual design (aka “optical
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`engineering”) is a technical craft regularly requiring experimentation and innovation
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`to solve technical problems of human perception and graphical reasoning in relation
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`to numerical and statistical data.
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`38. As a result of reading the patent as a whole, it is clear that the ’416
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`Patent is a user interface technology patent that improves the science of user
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`experience well beyond the domain of commodity trading. The ’416 Patent does not
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`claim general trading concepts independent of the specific technical limitations
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`taught in the specification and language in the claims. Instead, the claimed steps are
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`directed to the construction of a specific GUI and how a user can interact with it.
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`39. A new GUI improves the functioning of a computer when it provides
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`new structure, makeup, and functionality that does not exist absent the new GUI. By
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`“structure,” I mean the individual GUI components of the GUI invention, whether
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`interactive elements or pure data display elements. By “makeup,” I mean the
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`specific ordering and layout configuration of the various GUI structures on screen.
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`By “functionality,” I mean the ways in which the structures and the makeup of the
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`structures: (i) restrict and/or enable data to flow in and out of the system and (ii)
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`restrict and/or enable a user to (a) perceive information presented by the GUI and
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`(b) take action in relation to the system and its displayed information and interactive
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`structures.
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`40. Petitioner’s expert, Kendyl A. Roman (Ex. 1012), baldly asserts that
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`the claims of the ’416 Patent can be performed with pen and paper or on a
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`whiteboard. (Ex. 1012 ¶ 67). I am not familiar with any non-computerized pen and
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`paper or whiteboard capable of being clicked to perform any function, no less
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`achieve the novel multi-function result required by the limitations of the claims.
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`41. Of particular relevance to the ’416 Patent, the Shneiderman reference,
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`relied on by Petitioners, cites Fitts’ Law (pages 325) in relation to motor-task
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`performance timing and accuracy. Fitts’ Law dates back to the 1950s, but the
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`Petition is conveniently silent on the clearly technical nature of optimizing task
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`timing and reducing user error as evidenced by Shneiderman. In contrast, one would
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`not sidestep the similarly clearly technical nature of optimizing task timing and
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`reducing user error when discussing the layout and functional efficacy of an airplane
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`cockpit. Fitts’ Law was originally developed to measure and predict action in the
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`physical world. These same principles unquestionably apply to the performance of
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`software user interfaces, as discussed below.
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`42. To this end, Shneiderman discusses a canonical 1992 paper by Scott
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`MacKenzie and Bill Buxton (attached hereto as Exhibit 3), which extends Fitts’ Law
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`to two-dimensional on-screen tasks. Such variables are critical in making design
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`choices such as speed-accuracy tradeoffs in human muscle movement, and decisions
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`about GUI design variables of hit target size, hit target distance, accuracy risk, and
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`on-screen representations of pointing devices. For example, repositioning cursors
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`on a visual display must be done carefully to avoid causing users to lo