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`Prunsr send your rmnmcms m 1i:m:|backglmnld'_i_J‘-!1L'-ddi.'r.i:a.uk
`
`

`

`J. __is} Table of Contents
`
`
`
`Preface
`
`1
`
`INTRODUCTION
`
`I
`.
`I
`I .2
`I.3
`L4
`L5
`
`I .s
`I .'.I'
`[.3
`[.9
`
`Pre—PC Development
`sec fi.’Rfl8fl.-"3t}85
`EDSfiISUEB
`EU I tin-“XIII 33
`80236
`
`Post-PC development
`Exercises
`Notes from the author
`DEC
`
`l[Itpen .v. closed systems
`1.10
`RIP. Sinclair Research
`1.1 I
`1.12 How to miss a market
`
`2
`
`3
`
`BUSSES. INTERRLIPTS AND PC SYSTEMS
`2.I
`Bosses
`
`2.2
`2.3
`2.4
`2.3
`2.5
`2b
`
`Interrupts
`Interfacing
`PC Systems
`Practical PC system
`Exercises
`Notes from the author
`
`INTERFACING STANDARDS
`3. I
`Introduction
`3.2
`PC has
`3.3
`ISA bus
`
`3.4
`3.5
`3.6
`
`3.7"
`3.3
`3.9
`
`Other legacy bosses
`Comparison ot'tIiITerent types
`Exercises
`
`Summary ofinterfaee bus types
`'I'Iie fall oflhc MCA bus
`Notes from the author
`
`4
`
`PCI BUS
`4. I
`introduction
`
`4.2
`4.3
`
`4.4
`4.5
`
`PCI operation
`Bus arbitration
`
`Other F'CI pins
`Configuration address space
`
`xiii
`
`1
`
`|
`s
`I3
`I9
`213
`
`21
`ss
`40
`45
`
`4?
`48
`43
`
`49
`4‘}
`
`to
`E39
`rs
`"I?
`3'9
`H2
`
`35
`35
`35
`ft?
`
`9|
`92
`93
`
`95
`'9?
`93
`
`103
`[:33
`
`[as
`tII‘}
`
`E III}
`I It)
`
`

`

`4.6
`4.?
`4.8
`4.9
`
`ND addressing
`Exercises
`Example manufacturer and p1ug-and-p1ay IDs
`Notes from the author
`
`MDTHERBDARD DESIGN
`5. |
`Introduction
`5.2
`TX motherboard
`5.3
`Exercises
`5.4
`Notes from the author
`
`IDE AND MASS STORAGE
`5.]
`Introduction
`6.?
`Tracks and sectors
`
`6.3
`6.4
`
`6.5
`6.6
`6.?
`6.3
`
`Floppy disks
`Fixed disks
`
`Drive specifications
`Hard disk and CD—ROM interfaces
`IDE interface
`IDE communication
`
`Optical storage
`6.9
`:5. III Magnetic tape
`5. | l Exercises
`s. ll Notes From the author
`
`SCSI
`I]
`
`Introduction
`
`12
`71.3
`
`SCSI types
`SCSI interface
`
`SCSI operation
`?.4
`SCSI pointers
`15
`IJS Message system description
`I?
`SCSI commands
`IS
`Status
`T3
`Exercises
`III] Notes Irm‘n the author
`
`PCMCIA
`3.1
`Introduction
`
`3.2
`8.3
`3.4
`3.5
`
`PCMCIA signals
`PCMCIA registers
`Exercises
`Notes from the author
`
`USE AND FIREWIRE
`9.]
`Introduction
`9.?
`USE
`
`Computer basses-
`
`I 12
`1 16
`1
`| S
`1 1'9
`
`121
`12]
`132
`136
`13?
`
`139
`13431
`139
`
`140
`141
`
`142
`142
`143
`144
`
`15131
`153
`155
`155
`
`15?
`15?
`
`1 5?
`159
`
`162
`Ifid
`165
`IE?
`16:9
`11']
`[T2
`
`1T3
`1 "t3
`
`1T3
`1T5
`13“}
`I‘IQ
`
`181
`131
`182
`
`

`

`Tobie of'contems
`
`9.3
`9.4
`9.5
`
`I-ircwire
`Exercises
`Notes From the author
`
`1D
`
`GAMES PORT. KEYBOARD AND MOUSE
`11].]
`Introduction
`
`111.2 Games port
`111.3 Keyboard
`111.4 Mouse and keyboard interface
`111.5 Mouse
`111.5 Exercises
`111.? Notes from the author
`
`1 1
`
`AGP
`Introduction
`1 1.1
`P121 and A1111
`11.2
`1 1.3 Bus transactions
`
`Pin dcsc ription
`1 1.4
`I 1.5 AC? master configuration
`| 1.15 Bus commands
`
`l 1.? Addressing modes and has operations
`l 1.3 Register description
`I 1.1:} Exercises
`| 1.111I Notes from the author
`
`12
`
`FIBRE CHANNEL
`12.1
`Introduction
`
`1 2.2 Comparison
`12.3
`Fibre ehan nol standards
`
`12.4 Cables. hubs, adapters and connectors
`12.5
`Storage Devices and storage area networks
`12.6 Networks
`12.? Exercises
`12.3 Notes front the author
`
`13
`
`RS-2 32
`13.1
`Introduction
`13.2 Electrical characteristics
`13.3 Conuuunications betwccn two nodes
`
`Programming [15—232
`13.4
`118—232 programs
`13 .5
`13.13 Exercises
`13.1r Notes from the author
`
`14
`
`R5422, R5423 AND RS435
`14. |
`Introduction
`
`14.2 RS435 {ISO 8432]
`
`vii
`
`136
`191]
`[or].
`
`11-11
`191
`
`191
`195
`1911
`199
`2111'}
`2111
`
`2113
`2113
`2134
`21.15
`
`21215
`21111
`21:19
`
`2111
`211]
`215
`215
`
`21?
`217'
`
`2! T
`213
`
`2111'
`221
`22 I
`222
`222
`
`223
`222
`223
`223
`
`233
`231‘
`24 l
`246
`
`24?
`24?
`
`247
`
`

`

`viii
`
`‘15
`
`14.3 Lino drivers
`14.4
`[ES—2321435 converter
`14.5 Exercises
`14.6 Note from the author
`
`MGDEMS
`15. |
`Introduction
`15.2
`[13-232 communications
`15.3 Modem standards
`15.4 Modem commands
`
`15.5 Modem set—ups
`15.15 Modem indicator
`
`Profile viewing
`15.7Ir
`15.8 Test modes
`
`15.9 Digital modulation
`15.11] Typieai modems
`15.| I Fax transmission
`15.12 Exercises
`15.13 Notes From the author
`
`15
`
`PARALLEL PO RT
`16. 1
`Introduction
`15.2
`PC connections
`
`16.3 Data hand shaking
`16.4
`I30 addressing
`15.5
`Interrupt—driven pat'altei port
`16.45
`ExcroiSEs
`115.? Notes from the author
`
`1?
`
`ENHANCED PARALLEL PDRT
`15'. |
`Introduction
`
`1?.2 Compatibility mode
`12.3 Nibhle mode
`
`12.4 Byte mode
`1?.5 EFF
`12.15 ECP
`12.? Exercises
`I18 Non: from the author
`
`13
`
`MOD BUS
`
`18.1 Modbus protoco]
`13.2
`Function codes
`
`1 3.3 Modbus diagnostics
`I 3.4 Exercises
`I 3.5 Notos fmm the author
`
`Cmnpu for huxses
`
`249
`250
`25l
`25!
`
`253
`253
`254
`255
`25I5
`258
`251}
`261}
`2151
`264
`2155
`26?
`2153
`269
`
`21"1
`2'21
`221
`222
`2'5
`229
`234
`23?
`
`239
`ass
`ass
`29a
`29.1.
`294
`29s
`3110
`31m
`
`391
`3st
`30?
`3:19
`3|]
`312
`
`

`

`Table of comm/113'
`
`19
`
`FIELDBLIB
`19.1
`Introduction
`
`Fieidbus types
`19.2
`F'OLNDATIDN Fieldbns
`19.3
`19.4 Exercises
`19.5 Notes From tho author
`
`20
`
`WURLDFIP
`20. 1
`Introduction
`
`Physical laycr
`213.2
`2121.3 Data lint-t ancr
`213.4 Exercises;
`20.5 Hotos front the author
`
`21
`
`CAN BUS
`21.1
`Introduction
`
`Cr‘hN phy‘siflal
`21.2
`21.3 CAN bus basics
`
`21.4 Message trans For
`21.5
`Fault confinement
`
`21.6 Bit timing
`21.?
`(TAN open
`21.3 Exercises
`21.9 Ntfltih' from the author
`
`22
`
`lEEE-4BB, VME AND VII
`22. I
`Introduction
`22.2
`TREE-4113 hIlh'
`22.3
`XFME bus
`224 VXI bun
`22.5
`I-onroiaoa
`22.6 Notes from the author
`
`23
`
`TC PIIP
`23.1
`lntrod action
`
`TCPI'IP gateways and hosts
`23.2
`Function of the IP' protocol
`23.3
`Internet datagrant
`23.4
`ICMP
`23.5
`23-5 TCPEIP internets
`
`23.".Ir Domain nan-no 3343mm
`23 .3
`into-mot naming structure
`23.9 Domain name aorvcr
`
`23.11} Bootn protocol
`23.11 Example network
`23.12 ARP
`
`23.13 IP multieasting
`
`11-;
`
`313
`313
`313
`3113
`333
`333
`
`325
`323
`333
`33.3
`3311
`331
`
`333
`333
`333
`333
`333
`3411
`341
`342
`342
`343
`
`345
`345
`345
`343
`34‘}
`35.2
`353
`
`355
`333
`3311
`33.3
`333
`339
`3113
`333
`3133
`.168
`339
`331
`333
`333
`
`

`

`Computer bosses
`
`2.3.14 Exercises
`23.15 Notes from the author
`23.16 Additional material
`
`24
`
`TCP AND UDP
`24.1
`Introduction
`
`24.2 Transmission control protocol
`24.3 L'DP
`
`24.4 TCP specification
`24.5 TCH parameters
`24.6 Connection states
`
`24.1r Opening and closing a connection
`24.3 TCP user commands
`24.9 WinSoek
`
`24.10 Visual Basic socket implementation
`24.11 Exercises
`24.12 TCPIIP services reference
`24.13 Notes from the author
`
`25
`
`NETWGRKS
`25.1
`Introduction
`
`25.2 Network topologies
`25.3
`031 model
`
`25.4 Routers. bridges and repeaters
`25.5 Network cable types
`25.6 Exercises
`25.? Notes from the author
`
`26
`
`ETHERNET
`26. I
`Introduction
`26.2
`IEEE standards
`
`26.3 Ethernet — media access control {MAC} layer
`26.4
`IEEE 3112.2 and Ethernet SNAP
`26.5
`031 and the IEEE 302.3 standard
`26.6 Ethernet transceivers
`
`26. 2 Ethernet types
`26.8 Twisted—pair hubs
`26.9
`166 Mbps Ethernet
`26.10 Comparison of fast Ethernet other technologies
`26.1 I Switches and switching hubs
`26.12 Network interface card design
`26.13 Gigabit Ethcrnet
`26.14 Exercises
`26.15 Ethernet erossowr connections
`26.16 Notes from the author
`
`2?
`
`FIG-232 PROGRAMMING USING VISUAL BASIC
`27". 1
`Introduction
`
`325
`322
`3251
`
`335
`335
`
`385
`389
`
`3‘26
`392
`392
`
`395
`39?
`399
`
`406
`414
`416
`416
`
`419
`4 19
`
`421
`424
`
`426
`4251
`431
`432
`
`435
`435
`43.5
`
`43":T
`439
`441
`442
`
`443
`445
`445
`451.1
`45]
`453
`45?
`462
`464
`465
`
`46?
`46'?r
`
`

`

`Table of'comenrs
`
`Properties
`2722
`21.} Events
`
`214 Example program
`215 Error mcsscgcs
`2?.5
`PIS—232 polling
`21? Exercises
`
`25
`
`INTERRUFT-DRIVEN RS—232
`
`Inten-upl-dn'ven PIS—232
`ZBJ
`23.2 DOS—based RS—232 program
`28.3 Exercises
`
`PC PROCESSORS
`51.]
`Introduction
`15.2
`5055-55
`51.3
`Sflfiflfilfiflclfifi
`H4
`PentiumIPemium Pro
`55.5
`Exercises
`
`VESA VL-LCCAL BUS
`
`MODEM CCDES
`C. I
`AT commands
`02
`Result codes
`
`(5.3
`
`S-rcgistcn;
`
`REElUI'IIIIlrlltMC“lr CHECKING
`
`DJ
`[1.2
`
`Cyclic redundancy check {CHCI
`Longitudinal-"Vertical redundancy checks [LRCNRC]
`
`ASCII CHARACTER CCDE
`F.I
`Standard ASCII
`E2
`Extended ASCII code
`
`QUICK REFERENCE
`F.I
`Note-5 from the author
`
`ISDN
`(i1
`Introduction
`(3.2
`ISDN channels
`
`(3.3
`(3.4
`{.15
`6.5
`Cf?
`
`ISBN physical layer interfacing
`ISBN data link layer
`ISBN network layer
`Speech sampling
`Exerciscc
`
`xi
`
`46?
`4T3
`4?4
`475
`4?6
`47"?
`
`475
`459
`4??
`435
`
`459
`455
`495
`495
`5m
`5455
`
`559
`
`511
`5i1
`5:5
`514
`
`519
`5I5
`525
`
`525
`555
`555
`
`525
`551
`
`553
`555
`554
`555
`555
`541
`545
`544
`
`

`

`xii
`
`Crimpnicr basses
`
`MICROSOFT WINDOWS
`H.]
`Introduction
`
`HE Windows registry
`H .3
`Device dn' ucrs
`
`Configuration manager
`H.4
`Virtual machine manager {VMM}
`Hf:
`HE Multiple file systems
`H .TI'
`Con: system components
`l-LF; Multitasking and threading
`H.9
`l’Ing‘anuzl‘izila},r process
`ELIE] Windows NT architecture
`I-l.l | Windows 95 and Windows 93
`
`HQ Fundamentals oi‘Dperating Systems.
`11.13 Exercises
`
`HDLC
`I. |
`Introduction
`
`1.2
`1.3
`1.4
`1.5
`
`HDLC protocol
`Transparency
`Flow control
`Derivatives of'l-IDLC
`
`EXAMPLE WINEDCK CODE FDR VISUAL BASIC
`J_l
`My client [myClieanrrn]
`1.2
`My server lmySen-etfrml
`1.3
`Choice form {ChoiceSCJ‘mi}
`L4
`Error panel {Emirl’anclfn-ni
`LS
`Help form {helpfrm}
`
`Index
`
`54?
`541
`54:4
`55:5
`551
`552
`555
`555
`555
`561
`5:51
`5:54
`555
`5:5?
`
`559
`Sea
`5TH
`5T4
`5T4
`5T6
`
`ST“)
`533
`536
`587'
`58‘}
`
`SW
`
`

`

`Preface
`
`
`What is it that really determines the performance of a computer‘.’ Is it the processor? No,
`not really. it is the amount of memory that it has? bio, not really. Is it the speed of the
`disk drives? No. not really. This is because computers can have a fast processor, and lots
`of memory. and a fast disk drive, but they do not count for much ifthc bosses that corn
`nect them to each other do not operate efficiently. The performance of a computer thus
`directly relates to the bosses that connect it. The computer bus is thus the foundation of
`the modern computer. Without them, a computer would just be a bundle of components.
`Basses provide the mccliattism for the orderly flow of data over the rcquircti chan-
`nel. They range vastly in their specification. Front busses that transmit hundreds of mil—
`lions of bytes every second [such as with the PCI bus} to busses which transmit only a
`few thousand bytes per second {such as with the R5432 bus}. They vary in their speciv
`fication as no one bus can provide the required specification for all applications. For
`example, graphics adaptors attd electronic memory require high data throughputs, and
`must
`thus be closely coupled to the processor [known as a local bus connection}.
`whereas modems and printers require relatively slow transfer rates. and must be coupled
`to a bus which does not try and hog the processor for long periods.
`The perfect bus system would use a single connector for every device that connects
`to it, would be able to sense and configure whichever devices connected to it, would be
`able to use any type of cable, and devices which eunneel to it Would simply require a tap
`from one connection onto the next (a daisy—chain connection}.
`It would support high
`data transfer devices. alongside low data transfer devices, but the low data transfer de—
`vices would not hog the bus in favour of the high data transfer devices. It would support
`real-time data [such as speech and audio} and non-real-timc data {such as computer
`data} in an integrated way. so that the non-real-tirne data would not swamp the real-time
`data. This bus. of course. does not exist, or if it does exist. it will be too expensive, and
`would be incompatible with all the existing husses. Thus, we have many different types
`of busses, each with their own application. It is impossible to irnnrediately change com-
`puter systems every time a new application comes along. We do not immediately knock
`down our house every time we want to upgrade it. This would be expensive. and we
`probably would be able to sell it after we had done it. We thus try to use our existing
`framework and integrate with it.
`Internal busms connect the processor to its memory and its interface busscs {such as
`the PC} arid the {SA bosses}. The external bosses allow the connection the external de—
`
`vices to the computer. in an orderly manner.
`The book splits into five tnain areas. these are:
`
`L PC Interfaces.
`
`'
`
`Introduction
`
`' PCIrtterfacing.
`
`Interfacing Standards
`"
`1. Lecalbusses.
`
`' PCr'lt-SA.
`
`xiii
`
`

`

`xiv
`
`Computer basses
`
`' PCIMGP.
`
`' Motherboard Design
`' USE.
`
`' Games Port. Keyboard and Mouse.
`" Fibre Channel.
`
`' [(3-23 2th 3422:“Modems.
`
`' Parallel Port.
`Instrumentation basses-
`
`3.
`
`* Modbus.
`
`‘ Fieldbus.
`
`' WorldFlP.
`
`" CAN bus.
`' WEE-433.
`
`l VMEWXI.
`4. Network bosses.
`
`' Ethernet.
`
`' ISDNIHDLC.
`
`1' PretoeolslfiTCPth}.
`5. Bus programmingtprotocols
`1' TCPi'IP.
`
`' 115-232.
`
`' Parallel port.
`
`Slides and backup information can be found on my WWW site at:
`
`he:p:ffwww.dee.Rapier.ao.ukf~billfhooka.html
`
`IQuestions and any feedback that you have on the book should be sent to:
`
`w. buchananunapior . ac . uk or billodce .napier . at: . uk
`
`[ have inc1uded some notes at the end of most of the chapters which are much lighter in
`content than the main text. These are my own options. and. of course, should not be
`taken as fact.
`In fact they are there for debate1 and in some cases your may disagree
`with some of my comments. For example, I think that the TCF and IF“ protocols have
`done more for the freedom of speech and world peace than all of the diplomats around
`the world1 put together. They have no respect for borders. they do not favour any lan-
`guage, and they do not mind what the data is, and on what computer it came from. They
`are truly making the world into a village.
`Before I start on this book, I must reveal a little secret. My favourite bus. apart from
`the Number 45 bus which takes me to tvorlt every day, is the 113-232 bus. It’s not be‘
`cause it is the most technological advanced bus. or that it is easy to interface.
`Its be-
`cause ] grew an exeellent consultancy company by writing program for it. So, I‘ve got a
`soft spot for BIS—232. Long may it reign.
`
`

`

`Wad Introduction
`
`1.1 Pre-PC Development
`
`One at" the first occurrences of“ computer technology occurred in the use in the walls. It
`was due to the American Constitution demanding that a survey is undertaken every 1i]I years.
`As the population in the USA increased. it took an increasing amount oftime to produce the
`statistics. By the 1830s. it
`looked likely that the IEED survey would not be complete until
`15%. To overcome this. Herman Holierith {who worked For the Government} devised a ma—
`chine which accepted punch cards with infomiation on them. These cards allowed a current
`to pass through a hole when there was a hole present.
`Ilollerith‘s electromechanical
`tnachine was extremely successful and used in the ”$90
`and Hill) Censuses. He even founded the company that woold later heeome International
`Business Machines {IBM}: CTR (Computer Tabulatirig Recording]. Unfortunately. Hol—
`lerith's business fell into financial difficulties and was saved by a youngr salesman at CTR.
`named 'l‘om Watson. who recognized the potential oi" selling punch card—based calculating
`machines to American business. He eventually took over the: company Watson. and.
`in the
`I92fls. he renamed it International Business Machines Corporation [IBM]. After this. elec-
`tromechanical machines were speeded up and improved. lilectromechnical computers would
`soon lead to electronic computers. using valves.
`in W43; these were the
`The first electronic computers were developed. independently.
`“Harvard lull:
`l‘ and Colossus. Colossus was developed in the UK and was used to crack the
`Cemian coding system {Lorenz cipher}. whereas ‘Harvard Mk l‘ was developed at Harvard
`University and was a general—purpose electromechanical programmable computer. These led
`to the first generation olconiputers which used electronic valves and used punched cards for
`their main. non~volatile storage.
`The world‘s first large electronic computer (194(3). containingr 190ml values was built at
`the University ot‘ Pennsylvania by John Eekert during World I|litr'ar ll. It was called ENIAC
`{Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer} and it ceased operation in [951 By today‘s
`standards. it was a lumbering dinosaur and by the time it was dismantled it weighed over 30
`tons and spread itself over IS'EIIEI square feet. Amazingly.
`it also consumed over Zfikw oi"
`electrical power {equivalent to the power of over 4th]. at: W light baths}. but could perform
`over ltll] fill-ll calculations per second {which is reasonable. even by today’s standards). Un-
`fortunately,
`it was unreliable. and would only work for a few hours. on average. before a
`valve needed to be replaced. Faultfiading. though. was easier in those days, as a valve, which
`was working. would not glow. and would be cold to touch.
`‘v'alves were fine and were used in many applications. such as in Tlvr sets and radios. but
`they were unreliable and consumed great amounts of electrical power. mainly to the heating
`element on the cathode. By the l94lls. several scientists at the Bell Laboratories were inves-
`tigating materials called semiconductors, such as silicon and germanium. These substances
`only conducted electricity moderately well. but when they where doped with impurities their
`
`

`

`2
`
`Compare:- trusses
`
`resistance changed. From this work, they made a crystal called a diode, which worked like a
`value. but had many advantages, including the fact that it did not require a 1raeitum and was
`much smaller. It also worked well at room temperatures, required little electrical current and
`had no wann-up time. This was the start ofmicroeleerronies.
`{Trio of the great
`rct-‘olttliorts of all
`time occurred on liltccembor 1948 when William
`Shockley, Walter Brartain, and John Bardeen at the Bell Labs produced a transistor that
`could act as a triode. It was made firm a germanium crystal with a thin p-type section sand-
`wiched between two n—type materials. Rather than release its details to the world, Bell
`Laboratories kept its intention secret for over seven months so that they could fiilly undera
`stand its operation. They soon applied for a patent for the transistor and, on 3ft June [948,
`they finally revealed the transistor to the world. Unfortunalely. as with many other great in—
`tentions, it received little public attention and even less press coverage [the New lr’orri Timot-
`gave it 4?: inches on page as}.
`It must be said that few men have made such a profound
`change on the world. and Shockley. Brattain. and Bardeen were deservedly awarded the No-
`bel Prize in 1956. To commercialize on his success. Shockley, in 1955. thunded Shockley
`Semiconductor. Then in Will eight engineers decided they could not work within Shockley
`Semiconductor and formed Faircliild Semiconductors, which would become one of the most
`
`inventive companies in Silicon Valley. Unfortunately. most of the time Fairchild Semicon-
`ductors did not fully exploit its developments, and was more of an incuhator for many ofthe
`innovators in the electronics industry. Around the same time. Kenneth Ulsen founded the
`Digital Equipment Corporation {DEC}, who would go on to become one of the key compa-
`nies in the computer industry, along with IBM.
`Previously,
`in 1952, GW IJLunrner. a radar expert from Britain’s Royal Radar l-Lstablish—
`ment had presented a paper proposing that a solid block of materials could he used to con-
`nect electronic components, without connecting wires. This would lay the foundation of the
`integrated circuit.
`Transistors were initially made front germanium, which is not a robust material and can-
`not withstand high temperatures. The first company to propose the use of silicon transistors
`was a geological research company named Texas Instruments {which had divers-i tied into
`transistors]. Then, in May 1954, Texas Instrumcnts started commercial production of silicon
`transistors. Soon many companies were producing silicon transistors and. by Wild. the elec-
`tronic valve market had peaked. while the market for transistors was rocketing. The larger
`electronic valve manufacturers. such as Western l-ileetric. L‘HS. Raytheon and Westinghouse
`failed to adapt to the changing market and quickly lost their market share to the new transis—
`tor manufacturing companies. such as Texas Instruments, Motorola. Hughes and RCA.
`In July 1953, at Texas Instruments, Jack St. Clair Kilby proposed the creation of a mono—
`lithic device {an integrated circuit] on a single piece of silicon. Then. in September, he pro—
`duced the first integrated circuit, containing five components on a piece of germanium that
`was halt‘an inch long and was thinner than a toothpick.
`The following year, Fairchild Semiconducror filed for a patent for the planar process of
`manufacturing transistors. This process made commercial production of transistors possible
`and led to Fairehild’s introduction, in IWU years, ofll'tt: first commercial integrated circuit.
`Within a few years. transistors were small enough to make hearing aids that fitted into the
`ear, and soon within pacemakers. Companies, such as Sony. started to make transistors oper-
`ate o't'er higher ti'equencies and within larger temperature ranges. Eventually they became so
`small that many of them could be placed on a single piece of silicon. These were referred to
`as tnicrochips and they started the microelectronics industry. The first two companies who
`developed the integrated circuit. were Texas Insnuments and Fairehild Semiconductor. At
`Fairchild Semiconductor, Robert Noyce constructed an integrated circuit with components
`
`

`

`Introdacrr'o it
`
`Ln‘l
`
`connected by aluminium lines on a silicon-oxide surface layer on a plane of silicon. lie tlten
`went on to lead one ofthe most innovate companies in the world, the Intel Corporation.
`After ENIAC, progress was fast in the computer industry and, by i948, small electronic
`computers were being produced in quantity within five years {Euufl were in use}.
`in l9dl
`it
`“as ltlfltllt], [910 liltll Gilt]. IBM, at the time, had a considerable share oi" the computer mar—
`ket, so tnueh so that a complaint was filed against them alleging monopolistic practices in its
`computer business, in violation ofthe Sherman Act. By January l954, the US District Court
`made a final judgment on the complaint against IBM. For this, a “consent decree* was then
`signed by IBM, which placed limitations on how IBM conducts business with respect to
`‘electronic data processing machines".
`In 1954, the IBM 65B was built and was considered the workhorse oi' the industry at the
`time {which sold about
`lt'lfltt machines, and used valves]. In November 1956, IBM showed
`how innovative they were by developing the first hard disk, the RAMAC 395. It was tower-
`ing by today‘s standards, with Si} two—foot diameter platters, giving a total capacity of 5MB.
`Around the same time. the Massachusetts Institute of Technology produced the first transis—
`torised computer: the "IX-C} [Transistorized Experimental computer}. Seeing the potential ot‘
`the transistor. IBM quickly switched From valves to transistors attd.
`in 1959, they produced
`the first commercial transistorised computer. This was the “EM restroom series. and it
`dominated the computer marker for years.
`Programs written on these mainframe computers were typically either machine code {us-
`ing the actual binary language that the computer understood) or using one of the new com-
`piled languages. such as COBOL and FORTMN. FORTRAN was well suited to engineer—
`ing and science as it is based around mathematical formulas. COBOL was more suited to
`business applications. FORTRAN was developed in lS'ST {typically known as FORTRAN
`5?} and considerably enhanced the development of computer programs, as the program could
`be writing in a near-English Form. rather than using a binary language. With FORTRAN, the
`compiler converts the FORTRAN statements into a form that the computer can understand.
`At the time, FORTRAN programs were stored on punch cards. and loaded into a punch-card
`reader to he read into the computer. Each punch card had holes punched into them to repre-
`sent ASCII characters. .J-‘tny changes to a program would require a new set oi‘purtcli cards.
`in 1959,
`IBM built
`the first commercial
`transistorised computer named the IBM
`TiltlflfIIIQr-‘l series, which dominated the computer market for many years. in Not}, in New
`York, IBM went on to develop the first automatic massvproduction facility for transistors. In
`lilo}, the Digital Equipment Company [DEC] sold their first minieomputer, to Atomic En—
`ergy of Canada. DEC would become the main competitor to IBM, but eventually fail as they
`dismissed the growth in the personal computer market.
`The second generation ot'eomputers started in I961 when the great innovator, Fairchild
`Semiconductor, released the first commercial integrated circuit. In the next two years, sig-
`nificant advances were made in the interfaces to computer systems. The first was by Teletype
`who produced die Model 33 keyboard and punched-tape terminal. It was a classic design and
`was on many of the available systems. The other advance was by Douglas Engelbart who
`received a patent for the mouse-pointing device For computers.
`The production of transistors increased. and each year brought a significant decrease in
`their size. Gordon Moore, in 1964, plotted the growth in the number of transistors that could
`be fitted onto a single microchip, and found that the number of transistors that can be fitted
`onto an integrated circuit approximately doubles every 13 months. This is now known as
`Mooreis law, and has been surprisingly accurate ever since. In lilo-1, Texas Instruments also
`received a patent for the integrated circuit.
`At the time, there were only three main ways of writing computer programs: machine
`
`

`

`4
`
`{i'rirnprrrcr bosses
`
`code. FORTRAN or COBOL. These languages were often. difficult for inexperienced users
`to use. So.
`in lilo-”l. John Kemeny and Thomas Kurt-z. at Dartmouth t'ToIlegc developed the
`BASIC {Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code} programming language. It was a
`great success. although has never been used much in 'serious“ applications. until Microsoft
`developed ‘v'isual BASIC. which used BASIC as a foundation language, but enhanced it with
`an excellent development system. Many of the first personal computers used BASIC as a
`standard programming language.
`The third generation of computers started in I965 with the use of integrated circuits
`rather than discrete transistors. IBM again was innovative and created the SystemGot'l main-
`frame. In the course of history. it was a true classic computer. Then. in Hit}. IBM introduced
`the Systemfli'll. which included semiconductor memories. All of the computers were very
`expensive (approx. 5] flUthliJiJ]. and were the great computing workhorses of the time.
`Unfortunately. they were extremely expensive to purchase and maintain. Most companies
`had to lease their computer systems. as they could not afford to purchase them. .r'ts IBM
`happily clung to their mainframe market. several new companies were wort-ring away to
`erode their share. DEC would be the first. with their minicomputer. but it would be the PC
`companies of the future who would finally overtake them. The beginning of their loss of
`market share can be traced to the development of the microprocessor. and to one company:
`Intel.
`In lgtS'I.
`though. IBM again showed their leadership in the computer industry by
`developing the first floppy disk. The growing electronics industry started to entice new
`companies to specialize in key areas. such as International Research who applied for a patent
`for a method ol'constructing double—sided magnetic tape utilising a Mumetal foil inter layer.
`The begitming of the slide for IBM occurred in 1963. when Robert Noyce and Gordon
`Moore left Fairelsild Semiconductors and met up with Andy Grove to found Intel Corpora-
`tion. To raise the required finance they went to a venture capitaiist named Arthur Rock. He
`quickly found the required start-up finance- as Robert Noyce was well known for being the
`person who lirst put more than one transistor of a piece of silicon.
`At the same time. IBM scientist .lohn Coche and others completed a prototype scientific
`computer called the ACS. which used some RIIIC t“ Reduced Instruction Set {Jompuleri con-
`cepts. Unfortunately. the project was cancelled because it was not compatible with the IBM's
`fiystem-"Edtl computers.
`Several people were proposing the idea of a coinputer-on-a-chip. and International Re-
`search Corp. were the first to develop the required architecture. modelled on an enhanced
`DEC PUP-HIS concept. Wayne Pickettc. at the time. proposed to Fairchild Semiconductor
`that they should develop a computer—on-a‘chip. but was turned down. So. he went to work
`with IBM and went on to design the controller for Project Winchester. which had an en
`closed flying-head disk drive.
`In the same year. Douglas C. Engelbert. of the fltanford Research Institute. demonstrated
`the concept of computer systems using a keyboard. a keypad. a mouse. and windows at the
`Joint {Tomputer Conference in San Francisco's Civic Center. He also demonstrated the use of
`a word processor. a hypertext system. and remote collaboration. His keyboard. moose and
`windows concept has since become the standard user interface to computer systems.
`in Not}. Hewlett-Packard branched into thc world of digital electronics with the world's
`first desktop scientific calculator: the HP 910%.. .I‘tt the time, the electronics industry was
`producing cheap pocket calculators. which led to the development of affordable computers.
`when the Japanese company Busicom commissioned Intel to produce a set of betwccn eight
`and I2 ICs for a calculator. Then instead of designing a complete set of ICs. Ted IIotf. at
`intel. designed an integrated circuit chip that could receive instmctions. and perform simple
`integrated functions on data. The design became the 40134 microprocessor. Intel produced a
`
`

`

`introduction
`
`5
`
`Comp utor Generations
`I" Valves [ENIACII
`1"" TI monitors [PUP-It
`3r“ lore-glared Cir'ctnrs: Time
`sharing HEM Systernl'
`file-Cit
`4‘“ Large Scale Irttcgratlort
`iZXEI l
`5"" Systems-on-n-Chip
`tPcntIurn}
`
`Intel flflflflvseries
`49m F'RDM [4096-3 b-ts:
`4902 RAM I5|2D hast
`
`4'30} Registers
`4904 Processor
`
`Ind Generation Computer
`Companies {Transistoriznd}
`|
`lBH
`Unwar.
`
`set of ICs, which could be programmed to perform different tasks. These were the first ever
`microprocessors and soon Intel {short for integrated Efectronies} produced a general-purpose
`4-bit microprocessor, named the 4004.
`In April I‘J'i'fl, Wayne Pickette proposed to Intel that they use the computer-on—a~chip for
`the Busicorn project. Then,
`in December, (iilben Hyatt filed a patent application entitled
`“Single Chip Integrated Circuit Computer Architecture‘. the first basic patent on the micro—
`processor.
`The 4004 caused a revolution in the electronics industry as previous electronic systems
`had a fixed fitnctionality. 1with this processor, the functionality could be programmed by
`software. Amazingly, by today‘s standards. it could only handle four hits of data at a time {a
`nibble}, contained EIl'IIEII transistors. had so instructions and allotted 4 KB of‘ program code
`and 1 KB of data. From this humble start, the PC has since evolved using Intel microproces-
`sors. Intel had previously been an innovative company, and had produced the first memory
`device [static RAM. which uses Silt
`transistors for each bit stored in memory}.
`the first
`UM (dynamic memory,