Positionin and Communications
`
`To explore the possible complementarily between trucking industry activities and IVHS activities,
`
`the study began by reviewing the technologies available to the trucking industry, their adoption and use,
`
`and possible broad impacts on the trucking industry. In the discussion to follow, the technology review
`
`is reported following a brief overview of the trucking industry. Position finding systems are described
`
`first and then the major mobile communication services are identified and their capabilities noted.
`
`Developments in Europe and emerging systems are also mentioned. An exhaustive technology survey
`
`was not achieved because new products and services are constantly coming on the market, especially from
`
`vendors who package services from existing technologies. However, the systems mentioned are the
`
`prominent ones and are representative of the emerging capabilities.
`
`The next section looks at the experiences of the users and examines how well the available
`
`systems fit the needs of fleet operators. Satellite systems are emphasized because the bulk of operating
`
`experience with the most recently developed technologies is with mobile satellite communications systems.
`
`The HELP project is also mentioned. Then, we turn our attention to the lessons that are to be learned
`
`from the experiences of the early adopters. Three levels of integration are described as a way for fleet
`
`operators to realize the full benefits of the new technologies. A discussion of the broader implications
`
`of information technologies and further research follows.
`
`The research on which this document stems from the literature, interviews, and a survey. The
`
`reader will discover that there are a number of available and proposed technologies systems, and the
`
`situation is in flux. In some areas, there is considerable speculation, but not much hard data. While
`
`there are engineering-type data on technologies, data on technology adoption, benefits, and uses are often
`
`impressionistic. One is reminded of the vaporware mentioned when claims for computer software
`
`programs “to be ready yesterday” are discussed! The literature based research involved checking from
`
`multiple sources and striving for reasonable interpretations.
`
`The results of a survey of technology adoption and use assisted in interpreting the findings from
`
`interviews and the literature review. The survey is discussed in the Appendix where the development
`
`of an IVHS-oriented truck technology monitoring system is stressed.
`
`Page 000015
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`2.
`
`THE TRUCKING INDUSTRY
`
`Truck services grew first in urban areas and in rural farm-to-market services as trucks substituted
`
`for the horse and wagon.
`
`Intercity trucking grew later as the state-federal primary road system was
`
`developed in the late 1920s and 1930s. New services began to grow, and an examination of market
`
`shares indicates that market capture from railroads was essentially completed by the late 1960s. Although
`
`on ton mile measures the industry ranks somewhat below railroads, pipelines, and inland waterways,
`
`trucks are the dominant freight mode when tons loaded or payments for freight services are measured
`
`(Figure 1).
`
`The emerging trucking industry organization was frozen by ICC and state regulation introduced
`
`in the 1930s. There are regular route common carriers, contract carriers, parcel carriers, etc. Some
`
`firms offer national services, others operate in regional or commodity market niches. With respect to
`
`prices, services and conditions of entry into the business, regulation followed the railroad model. The
`
`presence of private carriage, owner operators, and agricultural haulers did, however, result in some
`
`regulatory deviations from the rail model.
`
`The Motor Carrier Act of 1980 essentially eliminated restrictions on the entry of firms into the
`
`trucking business. Established firms could enter new markets as they wished and new firms could enter
`
`the business almost at will. As a consequence of the latter, the number of firms reporting to the ICC
`
`increased from about 18,000 in 1980 to about 40,000 in 1988. Deregulation also reduced pricing
`
`restraints. The result was a period of considerable industry turmoil that continues today. The result
`
`important here is fiscal pressures on firms as the trucking business has become increasingly competitive.
`
`In 1988 the failure rate for trucking was 134.5 per 10,000 establishments, exceeding the 98 per 10,000
`
`establishments rate for all businesses. With increased competition, profits are low. This dampens the
`
`ability of firms to invest in new technologies. At the same time, competitive pressures force firms to
`
`increase productivity and seek technologies and operating improvements that will enhance the
`
`effectiveness of services offered.
`
`The American Trucking Associations publishes annual motor carrier reports based on data from
`
`the Interstate Commerce Commission. Summarizing data for 1,567 carriers of property reporting to the
`
`Commission, the 1989 Report indicated a return on capital of 5.82 percent. This limited return on capital
`
`has been the situation in the industry and its subdivisions for the last decade. One result has been aging
`
`Page 000016
`
`

`
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`
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`F igure 1
`
`: The Trucking Industry [I].
`
`

`
`Posilioninn and Communications
`
`of equipment, and, as stated, the lack of capital productivity has a problematic effect on investment in
`
`new technologies. Technologies with high rates of return are needed.
`
`With respect to steps available to improve productivity, a recent unpublished consultant’s report
`
`suggests, in order of usefulness:
`
`Preventive maintenance
`
`Driver education
`
`Incentive systems
`
`Vehicle-specific fuel monitoring
`
`On-board communications systems
`
`Computer management ofmaintenance
`
`Computer-aided dispatching
`
`Scheduling to avoid traffic
`
`High capacity equipment
`
`Trip computers
`
`Electronic data interchange
`
`Owner operators
`
`Full service leasing
`
`We have reproduced this list in spite of the non availability of the source document and lack of
`
`information on how usefulness was measured, because it is representative of the topics stressed in the
`
`trade literature.
`
`Discussing these steps to improve productivity with firms, respondents repeatedly refer to l and
`
`2 percent improvements as steps are taken. However, there are costs associated with actions, and the
`
`returns may not be additive. Would there be gains from increased preventive maintenance if equipment
`
`was full service leased? Would the gains from computer-aided dispatching be constrained by scheduling
`
`to avoid traffic?
`
`Seven of the thirteen steps make use of computer and information technologies, which are the
`
`focus of this study. The expectation of the researchers is that the consequences of the uses of these
`
`technologies depend on interrelationships. The consequences of technology uses will be great if ways
`
`Page 000018
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`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`are found to interrelate technology uses. This is a synergy, or the-whole-is-greater-than-its-parts,
`
`expectation.
`
`In the environment in which the industry is operating, service differentiation is the key, especially
`
`for small carriers. On the demand side, production and distribution have been reorganized by the
`
`adoption of flexible manufacturing techniques and Just-In-Time (JIT) inventories.
`
`(A recent survey of
`
`shippers reported that 70 percent of manufacturers have or plan to soon have a JIT scheme in place[1].)
`
`Experts agree that there is a strong trend towards integrated logistics, where procurement through
`
`material flow and consumer delivery are managed holistically [2].
`
`In this environment, the reliability and
`
`quality of transportation services is often as important to shippers as price [3].
`
`Transportation managers of firms and managers providing tl1ird-party services emphasize
`
`integrated or interactive activities. Today, the themes circulating among logistics managers and found
`
`in professional literature, such as the Journal of Business Logistics, stress the integration of
`
`transportation and marketing, uses of electronic data interchange, and the relationship between
`
`transportation services and direct buying strategies. This emphasis on integration goes beyond JIT
`
`services, and it envisions trucking services integrated with many facets of production and distribution
`
`activities. Again, interaction and integration have priority.
`
`To this point we have referred to the industry that provides for hire trucking services using about
`
`800,000 trucks. The discussion in this report will continue that emphasis because this sector is seen as
`
`the largest market for communications and positioning technologies. Trucks are used in many ways other
`
`than for hire, with by far the largest proportion used for personal purposes (Figure 2). However, some
`
`of the not for hire categories, such as the trucks used by electric utilities, provide market niches for
`
`advanced technologies.
`
`6
`
`Page 000019
`
`

`
`Egsitionjng and Communications
`
`Major Uses Of Trucks
`
`0,
`
`
`
`xx‘\\\\\\\\\\\\‘
`
`Cl Personal Use
`
`DContractor/Construction
`
`I Agriculture
`
`I Services
`
`El Retail Trade
`
`El Wholesale Trade
`
`El
`
`For Hire
`
`0 m Mfg/Rfng/Prcsng
`
`Utilities
`
`El
`
`Forestry/Lumber
`
`(The Shades Of gray may be
`'igure2: Major Uses of Trucks.
`di""icult
`to discriminate.
`Read clockwise from the noon position
`the listed systems.)
`
`following the order of
`
`Page 000020
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`3.
`
`POSITION REPORTING AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES
`
`Transportation services are provided away fiom the headquarters of firms and out of sight of
`
`management.
`
`In the early days, extensive rules backed up by enforcement procedures worked to ensure
`
`effective services. With time, communications and position reporting technologies were adopted in order
`
`to improve control, deal with unexpected events, and increase service flexibility. Because these
`
`technologies were expensive they were first adopted by aircraft, ships, and trains. With many small
`
`units, trucking firms were limited to occasional telephone calls to dispatchers by drivers, as well as radio
`
`voice systems.
`
`Today, however, original equipment vendors or third party value—added vendors are beginning
`
`to offer technologies suited for use by trucking firms. These technologies support position-reporting and
`
`message exchange.
`
`The position of the vehicle is generally reported to a dispatcher with minimal involvement on the
`
`driver’s part. Position is most often calculated using one of the radiodeterrnination systems which take
`
`advantage of the propagation properties of radio waves (although systems exist which use other media
`
`such as surface acoustic waves).
`
`The dispatcher and the driver may also exchange operations messages (e.g., when rescheduling
`
`a pick-up). Tractor or trailer operating parameters, such as reefer temperatures, are an example of data-
`
`only message exchange. Systems also exist that record operating data--from fuel consumption to the
`
`number of pick-ups and deliveries——which can later be downloaded to a computer for further analysis.
`
`These on-board recorder systems will be briefly examined in a later section.
`
`Radiodetermination and mobile communications are two terms frequently mentioned in the
`
`literature which broadly correspond to the positioning and communications services previously cited.
`
`(Positioning systems do not necessarily use radiodetermination principles to determine positions.)
`
`Communication takes place in both radiodetermination and mobile communications systems. The
`
`distinction between them is historical and alludes to differences in frequencies, technical requirements,
`
`and fimctions. The terms were first used in the context of air and maritime transportation and this is
`
`reflected in the following definitions.
`
`Radiodetermination is the determination of the position, velocity or other characteristics of an
`
`object, or the obtaining of information relating to these parameters, by means of the propagation
`
`Page 000021
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`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`properties of radio waves [5]. A radio determination system can be either terrestrial (e. g., LORAN-C)
`
`or satellite based (e.g., TRANSIT, GPS). When the latter is the case, the term radiodetermination
`
`satellite service or RDSS is used.
`
`Radionavigation is radiodetermination for the purposes of navigation. Navigation seeks the safe
`
`movement of a vehicle from one point to another. Navigation systems are designated as safety-of-life
`
`systems and are continuously available within their intended area of coverage. To avoid any interference,
`
`exclusive frequency bands are allocated to such systems (they are under a so-called protected status).
`
`Navigation is normally performed in the vehicle, of course.
`
`Radiolocation (sometimes also referred to as radiopositioning) is radiodetermination used for
`
`purposes other than those of radionavigation. The vehicle may not need to obtain its position from the
`
`radio aid, as would be the case of a truck moving along a road known to the driver. Rather, the position
`
`is calculated to serve the needs of a central station, say, a trucking dispatcher. A system offering
`
`radiolocation does not need to be continuously available. Radiolocation systems are not thought of as
`
`safety-of-life systems and are not given protected status for frequency allocation purposes. They may
`
`share their frequencies with other systems, and may cause interference problems. A radiolocation system
`
`may be simpler to set up than a radionavigation system, although this depends on the particular
`
`application.
`
`Mobile Communications refers to communications with a moving terminal. The transmission
`
`may be either via a satellite network, in which case the term mobile satellite service or MSS is used, or
`
`a terrestrial relay network (e. g., cellular phones). The data carried may be in forms such as voice, text,
`
`or location coordinates. The size, shape, and power requirements of terminals and antennas depend on
`
`the intended application. For instance, a bulky, highly reliable, and expensive terminal can be installed
`
`in a tank ship that costs millions of dollars. In contrast, a compact, light, low-power unit would be more
`
`suitable for a truck cab.
`
`The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) when allocating frequencies made a distinction
`
`between RDSS and MSS on the grounds that they serve different customer needs. It ruled that RDSS was
`
`primarily intended to provide radiodetermination information with some ancillary message capability [6].
`
`MSS on the other hand, was primarily a system providing voice and rural radio. While technically
`
`correct, the distinction is somewhat artificial and the link between RDSS and MSS may grow stronger
`
`Page 000022
`
`

`
`
`
`in the fixture as was demonstrated by Geostar, whose system was primarily used for messages even though
`
`the company had an RDSS license.
`
`Table 1: Positioning and Communications Systems Discussed
`
`Positioning Systems
`
`Mobile Communications Systems
`
`ProximitySystems
`LORAN-C
`
`Ground Based Systems
`Meteor Burst
`
`GPS
`GLONASS
`QASPR
`Geostar
`
`Public Telephone
`Pagers
`Cellular Telephone
`CoveragePLUS
`Magnavox
`II Morrow
`METS
`
`Satellite Systems
`OmniTRACS
`Geostar
`AMSC
`INMARSAT
`
`Table 1 presents the technologies that will be reviewed in the next two sections. We start with
`
`position reporting systems. The examination of mobile communications systems follows.
`
`10
`
`Page 000023
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`4
`
`POSITION REPORTING SYSTEMS
`
`Position reporting systems for land vehicles were first developed for fire, health, police, and
`
`transit services. Then, suppliers began to further develop technologies and target the trucking market.
`
`The most recent developments are for the Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS). The discussion
`
`to follow concentrates on technologies for truck operators, with comments on IVHS to be presented in
`
`a later section.
`
`None of the available systems can be classified as all-purpose, meaning that they can locate a
`
`vehicle continuously and accurately at any time and any place. On expense and lack of necessity
`
`grounds, one could argue against the optimality of such a system. On the other hand, many experts agree
`
`(e.g., [7]) that there seems to be a convergence towards a small set of technologies. This is also the trend
`
`among manufacturers (e.g., [8]).
`
`Over the years, several technologies have been proposed to locate a vehicle: dead reckoning
`
`systems; map matching systems; beacon systems using a number of low-power beacons; hyperbolic
`
`systems (e.g., LORAN-C) using radio beacons; satellite systems (e.g., GPS); and hybrid systems (e.g.,
`
`roadside beacons with dead reckoning and map matching). Because of their applications to maritime/air
`
`navigation and surveying, hyperbolic and satellite systems are used extensively throughout the world,
`
`Hyperbolic systems, however, were not designed for use over land and may not cover inland locations
`
`of interest. Satellite systems may not be visible in urban areas because of tall buildings, bridges, tunnels
`
`and other obstructive structures.
`
`Vehicle positions need to be calculated for either of two reasons:
`
`route guidance or monitoring.
`
`The accuracy requirements of calculations depend not only on the intended application but on the
`
`environment as well. Vehicles in urban areas with dense streets and address systems have the highest
`
`accuracy requirements, while trucks in rural areas have the lowest.
`
`Route guidance is one of the most important aspects of IVHS research and still is in experimental
`
`stages. Several Delphi studies (e.g., [9]) have projected that the majority of commercial vehicles will
`
`be using interactive (two-way) route guidance systems by the year 2005. Proximity beacons, dead
`
`reckoning, map matching or a combination of these are the preferred technologies for route guidance
`
`systems.
`
`ll
`
`Page 000024
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`The systems that will be described in the next sections are most suitable for monitoring purposes.
`
`Nothing of course precludes their application in route guidance schemes to provide, say, periodic
`
`initialization of a dead reckoning system. Proximity systems which offer an indirect means of location-
`
`finding are presented first. Next, radiodeterrnination systems are examined. After describing ground
`
`based systems,'the section ends with an overview of satellite systems.
`
`4.1
`
`PROXIMITY SYSTEMS
`
`Proximity systems are most often mentioned in discussions of road pricing, automatic toll
`
`collection, and container or trailer identification. The term proximity derives fiom the fact that the
`
`vehicle is identified when it passes within the proximity of an electronic “signpost” (Figure 3). Although
`
`the technology seems finally to be reliable, issues regarding invasion of privacy may have to be settled
`
`before these systems are accepted by private motorists.
`
`In its simplest form the technology consists of
`
`a tag containing the necessary electronics to uniquely encode a vehicle.
`
`Identification information can
`
`be read by roadside interrogation units, as may additional data such as vehicle classification, the type of
`
`shipment, its origin, and its destination. Tags may be passive or active, depending on whether they must
`
`be excited by the interrogator before they transmit. Some tags are also capable of receiving, storing and
`
`processing information.
`
`In this case, the term “smart card” is often used.
`
`The roadside units may take several actions after reading a tag. For instance, these units may
`
`notify a dispatcher that a vehicle has just crossed that point of interrogation or charge the vehicle owner
`
`a certain amount for tolls or fi1el taxes. Vehicle position is extracted indirectly from the known location
`
`of the roadside units. The distance between the interrogators determines how often a position is reported.
`
`Tag-based systems have been developed using various technologies: radio frequencies, surface
`
`acoustic waves, microwaves, magnetic induction, and modulated backscatter [11]. Radio systems have
`
`the advantage that the interrogator can be located even in a satellite, but they discriminate between tags
`
`poorly and are susceptible to interference.
`
`In November 1990, a system based on the modulated
`
`backscatter technology promoted by Amtech was adopted as an international standard by the container
`
`shipping industry. Previously, the same technology had been approved as an Automatic Equipment
`
`Identification (AEI) standard by the American Trucking Associations (ATA) and the Association of
`
`American Railroads (AAR).
`
`Page 000025
`
`

`
`P0eiti0ninpandC0mmunicati0ns
`
`Many toll authorities plan to install automatic vehicle identification systems for electronic toll
`
`collection.
`
`The Dallas North Tollway, in routine operation since 1989, is already a user of the
`
`technology. All 60 toll booths have been equipped with radio interrogators and about 20,000 vehicles
`
`carry credit-card-size transponders inside their windshield. Another popular application of the technology
`
`is the tagging of containers and railcars. A conservative estimate from the trade press would set the
`
`number of tagged containers at least 20,000 and that ofrailcars at least 15,000. These figures are likely
`
`P‘KDX|MlT"I AVH
`
`SICNPOST é
`
`CONTROL CENTER
`
`sognpou mmmm button
`:06: to vvhkk
`
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`vuhoclq by mine to Ium ma
`I-gnpou loco:-on pound by whack
`
`INVERTED PROXIMITY AVM
`
`WIRE UNK
`
`CONTROL CENTER
`
`Como. ‘Mm mmmlw"
`whkk that pound unto:
`wv-wow bv ‘M110 kom tau
`bcuuon
`
`Vvhkh vvwilmls Idcnmy
`‘°« .0 "won a "ma
`
`Figure 3: Example Proximity Systems [10].
`
`to go up for two reasons:
`
`the AAR is studying the mandatory tagging of all equipment [12] and the
`
`technology promises to solve the continuing problem of container inventory and tracing. In the past,
`
`
`
`13
`
`Page 000026
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`several mass transit authorities worldwide tested sin1ilar systems to locate buses, adjust their schedules,
`
`and inform the public as to when a bus is arriving. Recently, such systems have been widely introduced
`
`in Japan [13].
`
`Smart-card systems are more ofien used (especially in Europe) as debit cards to make phone calls,
`
`pay for gas or purchase mass transit tickets rather than in-traffic operations. A successful application of
`
`smart-card technology has been at a toll collecting site in Italy [14]. Finally, the DRIVE project
`
`PAMELA is designing equipment to facilitate two-way data communications between vehicles and
`
`roadside stations using smart-cards. The on-board unit features an intelligent interface bus, allowing it
`
`to pass data directly to and from other dashboard equipment [15]. This would allow, for instance, a
`
`computer system at headquarters to receive data through roadside stations from on-board recording
`
`devices or to send commands to control engine functions.
`
`4.2
`
`RADIODETERMINATION SYSTEMS
`
`Although radiodeterrnination systems have the advantage of providing absolute positions in space,
`
`the radio signals must reach the vehicle in order for its position to be determined. Thus, urban built-up
`
`areas or rugged terrain may cause reception problems. Still, several such systems are in use or have been
`
`proposed. The systems used most often by the trucking industry are described in the following sections.
`
`LORAN-C is perhaps the best-known ground based radiodetermination system. Two-way mobile
`
`communications systems making use of radio towers to relay messages (either data or voice) can also
`
`supply position information because the exchange facility that keeps track of callers needs to know where
`
`the callers are located. Digital cellular phone systems (to be introduced as early as next year) provide
`
`the same information by analyzing the digital signal. The accuracy is said to be up to one car length.
`
`In addition to the ground-based technologies,satellite systems are to be examined. The most
`
`prominent among them is the Global Positioning System (GPS). The section closes with the examination
`
`of two proprietary systems: Qualcomm’s QASPR and Geostar’s RDSS proposal.
`
`14
`
`Page 000027
`
`

`
`Positioning and Communications
`
`4.2. 1 LORAN-C
`
`LORAN-C is a well known hyperbolic positioning system.
`
`It has been used in aircraft and
`
`marine navigation since 1959. In recent years, high-perforrnance receivers at moderate cost have been
`
`developed and are used by bus and truck fleets, public utilities, and police departments. LORAN-C
`
`receivers measure the time differences between arrival of pulses from pairs of ground stations (one of
`
`which is the master station) [16]. Their accuracy is from 100m to 1,500m (330ft to 5,000 ft) depending
`
`on the circumstances.
`
`The LORAN-C transmitter chains are operated by the U.S. Coast Guard and have recently been
`
`expanded to cover inland locations of interest.
`
`European coverage is currently limited to the
`
`Mediterranean area and northern part of Europe although this may change in the filture. The US.
`
`Department of Defense requirement for the LORAN-C system will end in 1994, at which time the
`
`overseas stations will be transferred to the host nations [ 17]. Civilian use in the continental U.S. will not
`
`be affected (although a station in Alaska will be permanently closed).
`
`4.2.2 Satellite Based Systems
`
`Satellites are extensively used for position calculations because ranges (i.e., distances) can be
`
`extracted by signal processing. Theoretically, three measurements of distance to known points are needed
`
`to unambiguously locate an object in space.
`
`In practice, one of these measurements can be eliminated
`
`by either rejecting geometrically improbable solutions or by knowing, or approximating, the user’s
`
`altitude (as is the case in maritime applications). Distances are indirectly derived from the time it takes
`
`a signal to travel fiom satellite to user. This introduces one more variable to the location finding
`
`problem: time.
`
`The minimum number of satellites required to locate a vehicle is two (the same satellite can not
`
`be used twice without weakening the geometry of the determination). One solution calls for the user to
`
`have a clock aligned to that of the satellites’ (assuming both satellites are on the same timebase). This
`
`approach however, introduces enough sources of uncertainty to require a third satellite for calibration.
`
`In another solution the user terminals are required to retransmit the signal to an earth station that has a
`
`Page 000028